AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

BASED   ON   THE    LAWS   OF    NATURE 


UC-NRLF 


M.   DESHUMBERT 


Translated  from  the  French  by 
LIONEL  GILES,   M.A.,  D.Litt. 


This  book  has  already  appeared  in 

seven   languages,  and  will  shortly 

appear  in  three  others 


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AN   ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

BASED  ON  THE  LAWS  OF  NATURE 


AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

BASED  ON  THE  LAWS  OF  NATURE 


BY 

M.    DESHUMBERT 

n 


Translated  from  the  French 

BY 

LIONEL   GILES,   M.A.,   D.Litt. 

With  a  Preface 

BY 

C.  W.  SALEEBY,  M.D.,  F.R.S.Edin. 


CHICAGO   AND   LONDON 
THE  OPEN  COURT  PUBLISHING  COMPANY 


"  We  live  only  by  the  general  harmony  of  our 
acts  with  the  Laws  of  Nature." 


PREFACE 

The  author  of  this  patient,  sincere,  and  searching 
work  has  done  me  the  honour  to  ask  for  a  preface 
from  my  pen.  The  task  of  writing  it  comes  when 
I  am  almost  overweighted  with  other  work  on  behalf 
of  the  physical  and  moral  protection  of  the  men  who 
are  now  giving  their  all  in  order  that  the  principles 
of  doing  justice  and  loving  mercy  shall  prevail 
and  rule  the  coming  world.  Therefore  I  am  more 
than  ever  inadequate  for  the  present  theme,  and 
I  apologise  accordingly  to  M.  Deshumbert  and  the 
reader. 

It  needs  no  special  study  nor  discernment,  how- 
ever, to  see  that  this  book  is  a  real  contribution  to 
the  didactic  literature,  as  yet  so  scanty  and  inchoate, 
of  the  Religion  of  Life.  The  days  when  evolution 
— an  idea  as  old  as  the  Buddha  and  Heracleitus — 
was  thought  to  be  new,  and  therefore  fit  for  fashion- 
able argument,  are  long  past.  The  twentieth 
century  is  making  history  so  rapidly  that  we  are 
in  danger  of  forgetting  the  colossal  record  of  the 
nineteenth  in  destroying  lies  and  establishing 
truth.  But  the  line  of  Spencer  and  Darwin  is 
not  extinct.     In  France  M.   Bergson,   in  Sweden 


vi  PREFACE 

Miss  Ellen  Key,  are  making  contributions  to  the 
theory  and  the  practice  of  that  Religion  of  Life 
which  is  founded  in  its  modern  form  upon  the 
evolutionary  ethics  of  Spencer  and  Darwin.  It  is 
in  this  high  company,  clearly,  that  M.  Deshumbert 
must  be  placed.  **  To  the  solid  ground  of  Nature," 
said  Wordsworth,  "  trusts  the  mind  which  builds 
for  aye." 

At  a  date  when  a  world-tragedy  offers  an  oppor- 
tunity for  the  abuse  of  such  words  as  "  good  "  and 
"  right,"  M.  Deshumbert  quietly  offers  us  genuine 
study  and  thought,  in  the  service  of  that  ever- 
increasing  number  of  thoughtful  persons  who  know 
that  good  is  good  and  evil  evil,  and  who  know  that 
such  tremendous  realities  must  have  bases  no  less 
tremendous  and  real — bases  which  make  all  recited 
creeds  appear  trivial. 

When  the  young  generation,  whose  mind,  no 
less  than  its  body,  is  in  our  care,  comes  knocking 
at  the  door  and  anxiously  or  mockingly  asks  us 
for  the  sure  foundations  and  sanctions  of  right  and 
wrong,  seeing  that  not  even  the  professional  teachers 
of  theological  morality  now  believe  the  things  they 
say,  we  must  be  ready  with  an  appeal  to  the  Supreme 
Court  of  Nature,  and  with  proofs  that  the  laws  of 
right  and  wrong  are  the  very  laws  of  life  and  death. 

C.  W.  SALEEBY. 


TRANSLATOR'S    PREFACE 

When  M.  Deshumbert's  book,  La  Morale  fondee  sur 
les  Lois  de  la  Nature,  first  fell  into  my  hands,  my 
interest  was  aroused  by  the  quotations  from  Chinese 
philosophers  which  appear  on  the  first  page. 
Having  made  some  slight  study  of  Taoism,  I  was 
especially  struck  by  certain  points  of  resemblance 
between  that  system  and  the  doctrine  so  clearly 
expounded  in  the  present  treatise. 

On  closer  examination,  indeed,  it  appears  that 
the  aims  of  Taoism  are  practically  identical  with 
those  professed  by  the  author  of  La  Morale,  namely, 
the  rejection  of  artificial  codes  of  morality  and  the 
following  of  Nature  herself  as  our  only  trustworthy 
guide.  It  is  Lao  Tzu's  chief  title  to  fame  that  he 
regarded  man  as  forming  one  with  the  universe, 
and  therefore  advocated  what  was,  in  effect,  a 
"  return  to  Nature,"  and  a  life  which  should  be  in 
complete  harmony  with  its  environment.  At  a 
time  when  the  respect  for  antiquated  forms  and 
ceremonies  was  carried  to  an  extreme,  this  bold 
breaking  with  convention  and  indication  of  the  true 
criterion  of  human  conduct  was  an  epoch-making 
step  in  advance. 


viii  ^iV   ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

But  there  still  remained  the  all-important 
question  :  "  What  is  the  real  aim  or  tendency  of 
Nature  as  manifested  in  her  works  ?  "  And  to  this 
question  it  is  hardly  surprising  that  the  early 
Taoists  should  have  been  unable  to  furnish  an 
adequate  answer.  Contemplating  the  universe 
around  him,  Lao  Tzu  seems  to  have  been  chiefly 
impressed  by  its  unobtrusive  tranquillity  and  the 
absence  of  effort  which  characterises  its  workings. 
Hence  his  message  to  mankind  is  summed  up  in  his 
famous  paradox  :  "Do  nothing,  and  all  things 
will  be  done."  He  saw,  truly  enough,  that  it  is 
futile  and  wrong  to  strive  in  opposition  to  Nature, 
and  he  did  well  to  insist  that  we  should  adapt 
ourselves  to  her  laws.  But  it  is  not  on  that  account 
necessary  to  lead  a  life  of  utter  passivity,  to  "  attain 
complete  vacuity,  and  sedulously  preserve  a  state  of 
repose."  It  is  hardly  fair,  perhaps,  to  criticise  Lao 
Tzti  or  his  successors  on  the  strength  of  isolated 
sayings,  but  in  general  it  may  be  said  that  they 
failed  to  grasp  the  significance  of  the  facts  in  Nature 
which  they  wished  to  take  as  their  model.  Modern 
science  has  enabled  us  to  penetrate  more  deeply 
beneath  the  surface  of  things,  and  we  find  that  the 
smoothness  and  calm  apparent  in  the  operation  of 
natural  laws  serves  only  to  cloak  a  state  of  intense 
and  unceasing  activity,  no  particle  of  matter 
throughout  the  universe  being  at  rest  for  a  single 
moment.  And  the  course  of  evolution,  but  dimly 
apprehended  by  the  Taoists,  shows  that  the  grand 


TRANSLATOR'S  PREFACE  ix 

object  pursued  by  Nature  is  life — and  not  merely 
life  in  the  quantitative  sense,  but  '*  life  reaching  the 
highest  pitch  of  activity,  morality,  and  intelli- 
gence." Thus  the  system  set  forth  in  this  little 
book  may  be  regarded  as  Taoism  purged  of  its 
extravagances  and  misapprehensions,  while  retain- 
ing all  the  nobler  features  that  have  endeared  it  to 
so  many  generations  of  philosophic  minds. 

It  seems  to  me,  then,  that  we  have  here  a  broad 
interpretation  of  Nature  and  her  aims  which  will 
satisfy  those  who  are  anxious  to  find  a  firm  and 
logical  basis  for  human  life  and  conduct.  M. 
Deshumbert  had  little  difficulty,  therefore,  in  per- 
suading me  to  add  another  to  the  many  translations 
of  his  work.  Apart  from  the  contents,  it  has  been 
a  real  pleasure  to  make  an  English  rendering, 
however  imperfect,  of  thoughts  expressed  in  that 
most  lucid  and  elegant  of  prose  vehicles,  the  French 
language. 


CONTENTS 

Part  I 


PAGE 


STATEMENT  OF  THE  THEORY     .        .        i 

Part  II 

COMPLEMENT  TO  THE  THEORY  IN 
THE  FORM  OF  ANSWERS  TO 
OBJECTIONS loi 

Part  III 
DUTIES  AND   PRECEPTS  .        .        .170 

Part  IV 
ON  DEATH  220 


The  present  work  has  already  appeared  in  the 
following  languages: — 


French  {original) 

By  M.  Deshumbert. 

Portuguese 

Translated  by  Dr  J.  Vieira. 

Roumanian 

„          „    C.  Anton  Escu. 

Dutch   . 

„           „    Colonel  A.  Booms. 

Spanish 

„               „     Prof.    M.    MORAYTA. 

Japanese 

„           „    M.  Y.  Oyama. 
In  preparation : 

Russian 

Translated  by  Mme.  Levinskaja. 

Hindi    . 

„           „    Baeu  Sitaram. 

Bengali 

„               „     NOREEIDRO  NaTH 

i  \    ,  ;••.  r*'.  •." 


AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

BASED  ON  THE  LAWS  OF  NATURE 

Part  I 
Statement  of  the  Theory 

According  to  the  popular  definition,  Ethics  is  the 
science  which  teaches  us  the  rules  that  we  must 
follow  in  order  to  do  what  is  right,  and  to  avoid 
what  is  wrong. 

But  these  rules,  which  are  the  result  of  an  ex- 
perience limited  by  time  and  space,  have  greatly 
varied  according  to  the  period,  the  country,  and 
the  circumstances.  Even  in  our  own  days  the 
morality  of  the  poor,  the  oppressed,  and  the  humble 
is  not  the  morality  of  the  rich,  the  powerful,  and 
the  great. 

Five  hundred  years  before  Jesus  Christ,  Confucius 
said  to  his  disciples :  "  Do  not  unto  others  what 
you  would  not  others  should  do  unto  you.''  (Lun 
Yii,  chap.  xii.  art.  2.) 

And  again :  "  To  be  able  to  make  our  own 
feelings  the  touchstone  for  our  treatment  of  others 
may  be  considered  the  true  ethics  of  humanity." 
{Lun  Yii,  chap.  vi.  art.  28.) 

These  maxims,  though  they  have  been  repeated 
many  times  since  these  far-off  days,  are  not  always 
adequate  to  show  us  the  right  way.     For,  in  many 

I 


1 


2        -i^^-^^MiV  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

cases,  not  knowing  what  is  best  for  ourselves,  how 
can  we  positively  know  what  would  be  best  for 
others  ? 
_Confucius  also  said  :  ''  Return  j.usli£a..jQiLjn- 
_justice  and  good  for  good."  {Lun  Yu,  chap.  xiv. 
art.  36.)  Lao  Tzu,  his  contemporary,  goes  further. 
He  says :  ''To  the  good  I  would  be  good  ;  to  those 
who  are  not  good  I  would  also  be  good,  in  order 
to  make  them  good."     (Tao  Te  Ching,  chap,  xlix.) 

But  what  is  good,  and  what  is  evil  ? 

It  is  not  enough  to  say  :  "Do  what  is  right, 
refrain  from  that  which  is  wrong."  It  is  necessary 
to  specify  what  these  words  mean.  Where  shall 
we  find  fixed  and  certain  rules  ?  If  a  man  looks 
into  his  own  heart,  and  asks  himself  this  question, 
will  he  there  find  the  "  Law  "  ?  Will  his  insight 
be  sufficient  ?  Unfortunately  not.  Is  conscience 
a  safe  guide  and  can  we  follow  it  blindly  ?  Not 
always.  For  conscience  is  the  result  of  atavism, 
heredity,  education,  acquired  habits,  example,  and 
the  surroundings  in  which  we  evolve.  Necessarily, 
therefore,  it  varies  according  to  the  period,  country, 
profession,  and  social  position  of  the  individual. 
And  even  in  the  same  individual,  conscience  is  far 
from  being  constant  during  his  whole  life.  The 
conscience  of  a  child  is  not  that  of  a  youth  ;  and 
the  latter  differs  from  that  of  a  man  in  his  prime, 
which,  in  its  turn,  is  not  identical  with  that  of 
the  aged. 

There  are  even  instances  of  conscience  having  led 
men  to  commit  horrible  crimes. 

We  know  that  amongst  many  savage  tribes  it 
is  the  duty  of  the  son  to  kill  his  father  as  soon  as 
old  age  begins  to  show  its  weakening  influence  on 
the  physical  condition  of  the  latter.  With  these 
communities  it  is  an  article  of  belief  that  the  dead 


STATEMENT   OF   THE   THEORY         3 

before  attaining  to  Paradise  have  to  cross  immense 
regions  inhabited  by  evil  spirits  and  ferocious 
beasts.  A  dutiful  young  man  obeyed  his  conscience 
in  killing  his  relatives  before  age  made  them  too 
weak  to  defeat  the  cruel  beings  who  resisted  their 
progress.  Should  a  son  refuse  to  assist  his  father's 
entrance  into  heaven,  and  thus  fail  to  fulfil  an 
elementary  duty,  he  would  assuredly  feel  the  stings 
of  a  guilty  conscience  reproaching  him  with  his 
want  of  filial  love,  and  his  heart  would  be  filled 
with  remorse. 

C.  Flammarion  tells  us  that  "  among  the  savages 
of  Melanesia,  parricide  was  elevated  into  a  duty, 
the  neglect  of  which  would  have  been  considered 
disgraceful.  It  was  filial  compassion  that  made 
the  Fijians  cut  their  fathers'  heads  off." 

In  former  times,  cannibals  were  numerous.  When 
conquerors  devoured  their  enemies,  it  was  most 
commonly  from  a  sense  of  duty  :  in  order  to  acquire 
the  warlike  virtues  of  those  whom  they  had  killed 
in  battle.  If  anyone  refused  to  take  part  in  the 
sacred  feast,  he  was  considered  to  be  careless  re- 
garding the  future  glory  of  his  tribe.  His  conduct 
was  deemed  unpatriotic,  and  his  conscience  would 
not  fail  to  accuse  him.  With  numerous  tribes,  and 
even  with  such  a  civilised  people  as  were  the  ancient 
Mexicans,  cannibalism  was  also  a  religious  custom. 
In  proportion  as  their  conscience  was  more  or  less 
sensitive,  they  were  more  or  less  eager  for  an  oppor- 
tunity of  eating  their  fellow-men. 

In  other  parts  of  the  world,  cannibalism  was  the 
outcome  of  filial  respect.  A  son  would  eat  his  aged 
father  in  order  to  provide  him  with  a  fitting  tomb. 
Witness  a  remarkable  custom  which  was  prevalent 
among  the  Battas  of  Sumatra,  a  gentle  and  kindly 
people.     As  soon  as  the  father  of  a  family  showed 


4  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

signs  of  old  age,  his  children  asked  him  to  hang  by 

his  hands  from  the  branch  of  a  tree,  which  they 

then   proceeded   to   shake   vigorously,    while   they 

chanted  these  words  :  "  The  season  has  come  round, 

the  fruit  is  ripe,  and  it  is  time  for  it  to  fall."     And, 

indeed,  it  was  not  long  before  the  "  fruit  "  dropped 

to    the   ground,    whereupon,    with   much   religious 

solemnity,  the  father  was  killed  and  eaten  by  his 

children. 

*  *  * 

Again,  what  are  we  to  think  of  a  conscience 
admitting  slavery  ?  We  know  that  slavery  has 
existed  at  all"^imes,  especially  in  the  East.  We 
know  that  great  slave-markets  flourished  at  Ephesus, 
Samos,  Chios,  Cyprus,  Athens,  Delos,  Rome,  etc. 
The  institution  of  slavery  was  considered  by  all, 
even  by  the  Greek  philosophers,  to  be  quite  legi- 
timate. 

The  wisest  men  condemned,  not  the  principle,  but 
the  abuse  of  it.  Aristotle  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that 
slavery  is  a  necessary  condition  of  civilisation. 

In  course  of  time — that  is,  about  the  end  of  the 
Middle  Ages — slavery  properly  so  called  disappeared 
completely  from  Europe,  although  it  continued 
under  a  milder  form,  viz.  serfdom,  which  was 
preserved  in  certain  parts  of  France  until  the 
Revolution.  (The  monks  of  the  Abbey  of  Saint- 
Claude  maintained  a  system  of  serfdom  until  1789.) 

Slavery  only  left  Europe  to  appear  in  the  New 
World.  There,  as  formerly  in  the  East,  at  Rome,  etc., 
the  slaves  belonged  body  and  soul  to  their  masters  ; 
they  were  transmitted  by  inheritance,  by  gift,  and 
by  sale:  they  were  in  every  way  regarded  as  domestic 
animals. 

The  most  civilised  (?)  nations  only  abolished 
slavery    in    their    colonies    quite    recently.     Many 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY         5 

centuries  passed  without  a  word  of  protest  from 
the  world's  collective  conscience  !  The  following 
are  the  dates  in  which  slavery  was  abolished  in  the 
colonies  of  the  different  countries : — Great  Britain, 
1833  (liberation  of  eight  hundred  thousand  slaves)  ; 
Sweden,  1846  ;  France,  1848  (the  Revolution  had 
abolished  slavery  in  the  French  colonies,  but  the 
First  Consul  re-established  it  on  the  30th  floreal, 
year  10) ;  Denmark,  1848  ;  Portugal,  1856  ;  Holland, 
i860  ;  United  States,  1866  ;  Spain,  1872  (in  Porto 
Rico,  but  not  in  Cuba)  ;   Brazil,  1888. 

Among  all  these  slave-owners  there  were  certainly 
a  great  number  of  upright  men  who  prided  them- 
selves on  obeying  their  conscience;  but  although  that 
conscience  might  be  ticklish  on  all  other  points, 
it  remained  mute  on  the  question  of  slavery,  and 
even  approved  of  it.  And  when  death  came,  these 
slave-owners  saw  it  approach  without  misgiving, 
honestly  thinking  that  they  had  nothing  with  which 
to  reproach  themselves.  If  they  had  any  regret, 
it  was  that  they  could  not  leave  to  their  children 
a  greater  number  of  slaves.  Such  was  the  case  in 
ancient  times,  and  such  it  remained  until  a  few 
short  years  ago.  But  at  last  the  public  conscience 
was  aroused.  It  would  no  longer  tolerate  that 
men,  women,  and  children  should  be  treated  like 
beasts — beaten,  sold,  parents  violently  separated 
from  their  children,  and  wives  from  their  husbands, 
or  that  human  beings  should  be  denied  all  liberty, 
justice,  and  right. 

Not  so  very  long  ago,  quite  good,  respectable 
people  sent  those  who  happened  to  differ  from  them 
in  rehgious  matters  to  be  tortured  and  burned  at 
the  stake,  and,  in  the  majority  of  cases,  it  was  done 
solely  in  obedience  to  the  dictates  of  conscience. 
Fair-minded   judges   who   were   "  slaves   to    their 


6  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

conscience  "  used  to  condemn  so-called  witches  to 
be  burnt  alive. ^  The  laws  which  were  applied  had 
been  made  by  legislators  who  considered  themselves 
just  men,  and  conscientiously  believed  that  they 
were  acting  in  the  true  interests  of  humanity. 

Even  in  our  own  days,  how  many  virtuous  men, 
trusting  to  their  conscience,  do  evil,  believing  on 
the  contrary  that  they  are  doing  good,  and  desiring 
it  passionately  ! 

Therefore  we  can  honestly  say  that  there  is  not 
one  conscience,  but  a  multitude  of  different  con- 
sciences. Instead  of  one  guide,  we  have  thousands, 
who  unfortunately  do  not  always  agree. 

Then  what  are  we  to  do  ?  Where  and  how  are 
we  to  find  an  accurate  definition  of  right  and 
wrong  ?  If  we  could  discover  that  definition,  all 
that  we  should  have  to  do  would  be  to  develop  in 
ourselves  the  necessary  energy  and  will-power  that 
that  would  enable  us  to  do  our  duty.  People,  as 
a  rule,  are  much  better  than  one  thinks,  and  the 
difficulty  generally  lies,  not  in  forcing  them  to  do 
right,  for  they  nearly  all  desire  that,  but  in  being 

1  In  Spain,  between  1471  and  1781,  no  fewer  than  32,000 
heretics  were  condemned  to  be  burnt  at  the  stake,  291,000  were 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  or  other  penalties,  and  17,000  were 
burnt  in  efhgy  (Galton,  quoted  by  Th.  Ribot).  The  number  of 
witches  that  have  been  hanged  or  burnt  to  death  in  England  is 
estimated  at  over  30,000.  The  last  victim  was  executed  in 
Scotland  in  1722  (Sir  Hiram  Maxim).  In  the  duchy  of  Lorraine, 
400  sorcerers  perished  by  fire  in  twenty  years  (Gustave  Le  Bon) . 
That  is  an  average  of  one  sorcerer  for  every  eighteen  days.  Six 
thousand  five  hundred  persons  supposed  to  be  possessed  by 
devils  were  executed  within  the  space  of  a  few  years  in  the  single 
principality  of  Treves.  And,  as  late  as  1874,  four  sorcerers  were 
burnt  alive  at  Jacopo  (Mexico),  by  order  of  the  Governor 
Castillo  (Binet-Sangl6).  In  three  months,  500  witches  were 
burnt  at  Geneva,  800  at  Wurtzburg,  1500  at  Bamberg  (A. 
Grilli^re).  Under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Parliament  of  Bordeaux, 
in  1609,  600  sorcerers  were  condemned  to  death  and  most  of 
them  burnt. 


STATEMENT   OF   THE   THEORY         7 

able  to  tell  them  with  certitude,  "  This  is  right, 

that  is  wrong." 

«  ♦  « 

The  fundamental  error  of  most  philosophers, 
moralists,  and  founders  of  religion  has  been  their 
failure  to  understand  that  man  is  a  constituent 
part  of  the  Universe,  an  integral  portion  of  Nature 
and  of  the  Whole.  They,  on  the  contrary,  thought 
of  man  as  a  being  apart,  whose  "  soul  "  was  not 
subject  to  the  laws  of  Nature,  a  being  whose 
**  Psyche  "  was  outside  and  above  material  forces 
and  without  any  connection  with  the  Universe. 
They  did  not  see  that  as  Nature  comprises  every- 
thing that  exists — because  nothing  can  exist  outside 
Nature — mankind  is  necessarily  subject  to  the  same 
laws  as  the  rest  of  the  Universe,  and  that  therefore 
we  ought,  like  all  other  beings,  to  follow  the  way 
that  Nature  points  out  for  us. 

Guided  by  the  instinct  of  self-preservation,  man 
had  formed  at  an  early  date  some  general  idea  of 
the  things  that  he  should  do  and  those  that  he 
should  avoid  in  order  "  to  prolong  life  "  and  guard 
against  an  undue  number  of  unpleasant  mishaps. 
Our  remotest  ancestors  were  well  aware  that,  in 
order  to  go  on  living,  it  was  advisable  to  abstain 
from  certain  acts,  such  as  letting  oneself  fall  from 
the  top  of  a  chff ;  whereas  it  was  necessary,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  perform  various  other  acts,  e.g.  to 
absorb  from  time  to  time  a  sufficient  quantity  of 
food. 

But  they  behaved  in  this  way  without  realising 
that  they  were  accommodating  themselves  to  cer- 
tain laws  of  Nature. 

At  a  much  later  period,  when  the  existence  of 
natural  laws  came  to  be  recognised,  our  forefathers 
placed  them  in  the  same  category  as  the  laws  of 


8  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

man.  Their  application  was  supposed  to  depend 
on  the  will  of  the  gods,  and  to  admit  of  numerous 
exceptions,  it  being  possible  to  modify  them  or  to 
escape  from  them  altogether  by  means  of  prayers 
and  offerings. 

And  this  ignorant  belief  was  persisted  in  for  a 
long  time. 

At  length,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries,  the  clouds 
of  error  were  dispersed,  and  we  know  now  that  our 
body  is  the  result  of  a  long  process  of  evolution  ; 
that  it  continues,  both  in  whole  and  in  part,  to  obey 
the  natural  forces  which  produced  this  evolution, 
and  that  this  is  a  law  to  which  there  are  no  excep- 
tions. (Hence  the  importance  we  attach  nowadays 
to  hj^giene,  to  ph3^sical  exercises,  and  to  proph34actic 
science  in  general.) 

We  know  further  that  our  mental  and  moral 
qualities  have  been  evolved  in  the  same  way,  and 
are  likewise  still  subject  to  the  complex  workings 
of  these  natural  forces  that  brought  them  to  their 
present  stage  of  development. 

That  being  the  case,  we  should,  to  be  consistent, 
do  for  our  moral  and  intellectual  life  what  has 
alread}^  been  done  on  the  physical  side — endeavour 
to  find  out  what  Nature  wants,  so  that  we  may 
obey  her  commands  and  live  a  full,  harmonious, 
normal  life  in  every  direction. 

Nature  is  our  mother — nay,  she  is  something 
even  more  than  that ;  for  not  only  are  we  engendered 
by  Nature,  but  it  is  in  and  by  her  that  we  live, 
and  to  her  that  we  shall  return. 

This  state  of  close  and  continual  dependence  on 
Nature  makes  it  quite  evident  that  there  can  be 
no  "  happiness,"  no  "  full  expansion  of  our  being," 
without  complete  harmony  between  Nature  and 
ourselves,  unless,  that  is  to  say,  we  render  whole- 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY         9 

hearted  obedience  to  her  laws,  and  follow  with 
joyful  steps  along  the  path  that  she  herself 
treads. 

We  live  only  by  the  general  harmony  of  our  acts 
with  the  Laws  of  Nature.  Our  will  is  therefore 
obliged,  as  A.  Fouillee  has  said,  to  be  at  the  same 
time  the  will  of  Nature. 

It  is  wise,  then,  to  make  an  effort  to  understand 
at  least  the  general  tendencies  of  Nature,  in  order 
to  regulate  our  conduct  accordingly.  And  these 
tendencies  of  Nature  are  to  be  sought  quite  humbly 
and  sincerely  ;  not  by  musings  and  vain  assump- 
tions, but  by  a  large  number  of  direct  observations, 
patiently  and  faithfulty  carried  out. 

Before  going  any  further,  it  may  be  well  to  see 
what  is  meant  by  the  terms  "  Nature  "  and  **  Laws 
of  Nature."  We  know  that  whenever  like  pheno- 
mena are  produced  under  like  conditions,  they  are 
followed  by  other  phenomena  which  are  like  to 
one  another.  Or,  to  put  it  in  a  more  familiar  way, 
the  same  causes  are  followed  by  the  same  effects. 
It  is  this  constancy  in  the  succession  of  pheno- 
mena which  constitutes  what  we  call  the  Laws  of 
Nature. 

We  may  add  that,  inasmuch  as  the  laws  of 
Nature  are  the  expression  or  the  result  of  the 
properties  inherent  in  the  constitution  of  things, 
they  cannot  be  other  than  they  are. 

When  we  speak  of  Nature,  we  mean  the  Cosmos, 
the  Universe,  everything  that  exists — that  is  to 
say,  the  sum  of  "  beings  and  things  "  (men,  animals, 
plants,  stars,  planets,  etc.),  the  totality  of  **  Sub- 
stance "  (matter,  energy,  forces,  etc.),  the  totality 
of  the  "  Laws  of  Nature."  In  a  word.  Nature  is 
"  All-that-is."  In  this  inquiry,  however,  we  shall 
restrict  the  meaning  of  the  word  to  that  part  of 


lo  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

the  Cosmos   with   which  we   are  best  acquainted, 
namely,  the  Earth. 

*  *  * 

Now,  what  does  Nature  desire  ?  Or,  to  speak 
more  accurately  :  What  does  every  plant  desire  ? 
What  does  every  animal  desire  ?  What  does  every 
living  creature  desire  ?     Let  us  see. 

A.  von  Humboldt,  in  his  Pictures  from  Nature, 
tells  us  :  "  When  man  questions  Nature  with  a 
genuine  thirst  for  knowledge,  or  in  his  imagination 
measures  the  vast  spaces  of  organic  creation,  the 
deepest  and  most  powerful  emotion  which  he  ex- 
periences is  the  feeling  of  the  overwhelming  pleni- 
tude of  life  distributed  throughout  the  Universe." 
There  is,  indeed,  superabundance  of  life  on  every 
side.  We  see  it  covering  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
penetrating  the  soil  itself,  filling  the  waters,  descend- 
ing to  depths  of  the  ocean  where  absolute  darkness 
prevails,  and,  in  spite  of  their  low  temperature, 
spreading  itself  throughout  the  polar  seas.^  The 
air,  too,  is  swarming  with  microscopic  forms  of  Hfe. 

1  Life  persists  in  spite  of  low  temperature.  Thus,  over  300 
different  species  of  algae  occur  in  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Oceans. 
Algae  are  found  as  far  north  as  80°,  where  the  water  is  never 
much  above  freezing-point.  The  Scotia  brought  back  from  its 
expedition  in  the  Antarctic  seas  (71°  22'  S.  by. 16°  44'  W.) 
specimens  of  more  than  sixty  kinds  of  living  organisms,  taken 
from  an  average  depth  of  four  and  a  half  kilometres.  At  the 
entrance  to  Ice  Fjord  in  Spitzbergen,  the  Prince  of  Monaco 
netted  in  a  single  haul  1775  shrimps  {Pandalus  borealis),  weigh- 
ing altogether  nearly  twenty  kilogrammes.  But  the  sea  is  every- 
where full  of  life.  The  cruises  of  the  Michael  Sars  have  shown 
that  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean,  where  the  number  of  living 
organisms  is  less  than  off  the  coasts,  the  plants  and  animals  con- 
stituting the  microscopic  plankton  can  be  estimated  at  3000  to 
12,000  per  litre  of  water.  On  board  the  Michael  Sars,  a  single 
cast  of  the  net  brought  up  330  fish  from  a  depth  of  1000  metres, 
off  the  west  coast  of  Ireland.  Finally,  at  a  depth  of  7000 
metres,  where  the  light  and  heat  of  the  sun  can  never  penetrate, 
Uving  things  are  still  to  be  found. 


STATEMENT  OF  THE   THEORY       ii 

These  truths  are  so  evident  that  it  is  impossible 
to  deny  them.  Therefore  we  are  forced  to  admit 
that  hfe  is  profusely  distributed,  and  that,  where- 
ever  it  can  exist,  there  it  appears  and  remains. 

The  following  few  observations  will  also  show — 
although  this  demonstration  may  be  hardly 
necessary — not  only  that  every  living  thing  en- 
deavours with  all  its  strength,  by  the  very  fact 
that  it  is  alive,  to  continue  to  live — that  it  is 
constantly  making  the  utmost  effort,  whether 
consciously  or  no,  to  persevere  in  its  existence — 
but  also  that  there  is  no  sacrifice  it  will  shrink 
from  in  order  to  ensure  the  perpetuation  of  its 
species. 

The   following   is   a  very   condensed    review   of  f 
the   means  employed  by  Nature  to  achieve  these 
two  objects :    the   preservation  and   the  diffusion 
of  life. 

Let  us  take  the  case  of  plants.  In  order  to 
protect  themselves  against  their  enemies,  they 
resort  to  a  number  of  devices  :  prickly  hairs  to 
prevent  insects  from  climbing  up  the  stalk  ;  also, 
in  many  cases,  acid  or  bitter  juices  secreted  from 
the  leaves  and  the  stem  which  may  serve  to  keep 
off  hungry  visitors.  Sometimes,  as  in  the  nettle, 
the  acid  is  collected  in  the  tip  of  stiff  hairs,  so  that 
any  aggressor,  be  he  man  or  beast,  has  to  smart 
for  his  imprudence. 

Another  method,  which  we  see  adopted  by  the 
viscous  Lychnis,  is  to  cover  the  stem  with  a  gummy 
substance,  which  forms  an  effective  obstacle  to 
insects  in  their  ascent  towards  the  flower,  the 
seeds,  or  the  leaves. 

Thorns  and  prickles,  in  many  cases,  safeguard  a 
plant  against  attack,  and  to  a  certain  extent  these 
also  can  be  considered  as  a  means  of  protection. 


12  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

The  most  curious  expedient  of  all  is  undoubtedly 
the  one  adopted  by  the  sensitive  plant,  which  at 
the  slightest  touch  makes  its  leaves  contract  in  the 
way  familiar  to  us  all.  Any  ant  or  beetle  that 
happens  to  climb  up  the  stalk  is  stopped  as  soon  as 
it  gets  near  one  of  the  leaves  by  a  mechanical 
device  set  in  motion  by  the  insect  itself  as  it  crawls 
over  a  tiny  spikelet  growing  at  the  very  base  of  each 
petiole.  This  spikelet  rests  on  a  little  cushion  full 
of  water.  The  least  pressure  causes  it  to  act  as  a 
lever,  squeezing  the  cushion  and  forcing  some  of  its 
water  up  into  the  stalk.  The  petiole,  being  no 
longer  supported  by  its  cushion,  subsides  a  little  ; 
the  leaves  close,  and  this  movement  drives  away 
the  intruder. 

But  plants  do  not  always  find  these  protective 

methods    sufficient    to    secure    continuity    of   life. 

Hence  they  fall  back  as  a  rule  on  another  process 

of   great   efficacy    which   we  shall   speak   of   in  a 

moment  :   the  rapid  healing  of  wounds. 

r      It  is  the  aim  of  plants,  as  of  all  living  things,  to 

/  ensure  the  perpetuation  of  their  sj>ecies.     To  that 

/    end,  not  only  is  the  number  of  seeds  produced  some- 

^     thing  prodigious,^  but  every  plant  actually  does  all 

that  lies  in  its  power  in  order  that  its  seeds  may 

germinate. 

For  instance,  if  the  seeds  were  to  fall  in  a  mass  at 
the  foot  of  the  mother-plant,  they  would  stifle  one 
another,  and  moreover,  except  in  the  case  of 
annuals,  the  mother's  own  shade  would  hinder  the 
proper  development  of  her  children.     It  is  necessary 

^  To  take  two  examples  at  random  :    digitalis  bears  120,000 

I  seeds,  sisymbrium  75,000  seeds  in  a  single  season.     The  seeds 

I  that  do  not  germinate  are  not  lost  ;    they  serve  as  food  for  vast 

numbers  of  birds  and  insects,  or  else  they  fertilise  the  soil  by 

their  decomposition.     Here  again  we  have  life  springing  up  out 

of  death. 


STATEMENT   OF   THE   THEORY        13 

therefore  that  the  latter  should  seek  their  fortunes 
at  a  distance.  Several  methods,  all  showing 
remarkable  intelligence,  are  employed  to  bring 
about  this  desirable  result. 

[a)  Often  the  seeds  have  little  wings  or  parachutes, 
so  that  the  wind  can  easily  carry  them  away.  This 
is  the  case  with  the  dandelion,  lime  tree,  sycamore, 
hornbeam,  maple,  elm,  ash,  maritime  pine,  willow, 
cotton  shrub,  etc. 

[h)  Or  else  the  seeds  are  closely  connected  with 
the  fruit  on  which  animals  and  birds  feed.  But  each 
grain  of  seed  is  contained  in  an  envelope  hard  enough 
to  resist  the  gastric  juices,  and  in  course  of  time  it 
is  deposited  on  the  ground  in  the  natural  way  along 
with  a  small  provision  of  manure.  This  applies  to 
the  strawberry,  raspberry,  mulberry,  grape,  fig, 
arbutus,  sloe,  beam-berry,  blackcurrant,  red  currant, 
sorb,  hawthorn-berry,  elder-berry,  etc. 

(c)  In  other  cases,  the  pod  bursts,  and  the  seeds 
are  scattered  about,  as  with  balsam,  wild  cucumber, 
lupin,  box,  broom,  etc. 

[d)  Sometimes  the  seeds  are  provided  with 
small  hooks  which  catch  in  the  hairy  coats  or 
fleece  of  quadrupeds,  who  thus  act  as  involuntary 
carriers  and  distributors:  burr,  herb-bennet,  goose- 
grass,  etc. 

Plants  are  indeed  forced  to  take  all  these  pre- 
cautions. Their  seeds  are  attacked  by  so  many 
enemies,  are  surrounded  by  so  many  agents  of 
destruction,  that  without  this  fecundity  and  these 
stratagems  the  race  would  soon  disappear. 

What  happens  in  the  case  of  fishes  ?  We  notice 
that  their  spawn  is  extraordinarily  abundant,  and 
for  the  same  reason.  For  instance,  the  herring 
produces  between  20,000  and  60,000  eggs,  the  pike 
100,000,   the  sole  between  500,000   and    800,000,  U 


14  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

the  sturgeon  more  than  a  milHon,  the  cod  from  3 
to  7  milHons,  the  conger-eel  from  8  to  9  milHons, 
the  turbot  15  milhons,  the  ling  from  20  to  28 
millions. 

As  for  insects,  one  hyphantria  can  be  the  mother 
of  125,000  caterpillars  in  a  single  season.  Huxley 
tells  us  that  a  single  green-fly  (aphis)  will  produce 
parthenogenetically,  in  ten  generations,  a  trillion 
individuals.  A  queen  bee,  at  the  height  of  her 
productivity,  will  lay  during  the  season  between 
2000  and  3000  eggs  a  day,  or  close  upon  a  million 
altogether  in  her  lifetime. 

For  the  seeds  of  plants,  the  eggs  of  insects,  or 
the  young  of  animals,  the  rule  holds  good  that  the 
greater  the  mortality  likely  to  be  incurred  by  them, 
the  larger  the  numbers  that  will  be  produced. 

It  is  necessary,  indeed,  if  a  species  is  not  to 
become  extinct,  for  the  young  ones  to  be  either 
extremely  numerous  or  very  well  looked  after  by 
their  parents.  Nature  seems,  therefore,  to  have 
endowed  the  parents  just  mentioned  with  prodigious 
fertility  in  order  to  make  up  for  their  inaptitude, 
through  lack  of  knowledge  or  lack  of  power,  to 
protect  their  offspring.  This  is  a  universal_rule. 
The  common  partridge,  for  exampIeTTays  from  ten 
to  twenty  eggs,  whereas  the  eagle,  whose  young 
run  no  great  risks,  generally  lays  only  two.  The 
exceptions  are  more  apparent  than  real.  Thus,  the 
lioness  has  a  larger  litter  than  the  zebra  or  the 
antelope,  which  serve  as  food  for  her  and  her  kind. 
Nevertheless,  there  are  indisputably  fewer  lions 
than  zebras.  That  arises  from  the  fact  that,  from 
some  cause  yet  unknown,  a  very  high  mortality 
obtains  among  young  carnivora.  To  prevent  car- 
nivora  from  dying  out,  therefore,  the  number  of 
births  must  be  relatively  large.     Thus  Nature  in 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY        15 

many  cases  has  to  be  prodigal  of  life  in  order 
to  secure  its  continuity.  This  prodigality  is  not 
waste.  ^ 

The  objection  has  been  made  that  this  extra- 
ordinary fecundity  of  plants  and  the  lower  animals 
could  not  be  otherwise  than  it  is,  seeing  that  only 
those  individuals  which  had  acquired  this  character- 
istic by  some  means  or  other  would  be  in  a  position 
to  perpetuate  their  species,  while  the  others  dis- 
appeared automatically,  so  to  speak ;  and  that 
consequently  we  may  regard  this  phenomenon  as 
being  due  to  a  purely  fortuitous  cause.  To  us  it 
appears,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  struggle  for 
existence,  so  terrible  at  first  sight,  was  expressly 
resorted  to  by  Nature  in  her  constant  desire  for  more 
life,  in  order  that  the  privilege  of  perpetuating  their 
species  might  fall  to  those,  and  those  alone,  who 
were  best  qualified  for  it  in  point  of  tenacity, 
endurance,  fertility,  and  (at  a  later  stage)  intelli- 
gence. The  others  were  only  Nature's  experiments  ; 
for,  always  aiming  at  something  better,  she  made 
many  preliminary  rough  models  that  she  destroyed, 
many  tentative  moulds  that  she  broke  up  again 
before  being  satisfied  with  her  handiwork,  that  is, 
before  obtaining  the  maximum  of  life  that  circum- 
stances and  environment  would  permit. 

With  the  same  object  in  view,  lower  beings,  such 
as  plants,  insects,  etc.,  which  are  constantly  exposed 
to  numerous  dangers  that  they  cannot  always 
avoid,  heal  their  wounds  with  extraordinary  celerity, 

^  We  shall  not  accuse  Nature  of  being  wasteful  if  we  reflect 
that,  ever  since  our  Earth  has  been  what  it  is,  that  is  to  say,  for 
millions  of  years,  an  incalculable  number  of  beings  and  things 
has  been  produced  out  of  the  same  atoms  or  electrons,  in  an 
infinite  variety  of  combinations.  Nature,  then,  is  not  wasteful, 
since  she  makes  eternal  use  of  the  same  substance  without  ever 
destroying  it. 


i6  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

and  have  seldom  any  difficulty  in  renewing  parts  of 
their  body  that  have  been  destroyed. 

The  lawn  under  our  feet  that  is  subjected  to  the 
mowing  machine  untiringly  resumes  its  verdant 
growth  after  each  operation,  every  blade  of  grass 
showing  the  same  eagerness  to  live  the  fullest 
possible  life. 

Cuttings  taken  from  the  parent  stem  and  stuck 
in  the  earth  develop  roots  and  leaves,  flowers  and 
fruits  and  seeds.  What  a  miracle  of  regenera- 
tion is  this !  What  a  tremendous  task  to  have 
accomplished ! 

Likewise,  we  see  branches  of  trees  and  shrubs 
that  have  been  ruthlessly  cut  away  putting  forth 
again. 

One  might  even  say  that  serious  injuries  or  the 
danger  of  death  stimulate  the  development  of 
plants.  It  seems  as  though  a  plant  on  the  point 
of  death  makes  desperate  efforts  to  ensure  the  trans- 
mission of  the  life  which  animates  it.  We  will 
only  give  three  examples  borrowed  in  a  condensed 
form  from  H.  de  Varigny : — [a)  In  1830,  when  the 
French  landed  at  Sidi  Ferruch,  there  were  quanti- 
ties of  agaves  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Algiers.  It 
was  decided  to  establish  a  camp  in  the  midst  of 
them.  The  soldiers  amused  themselves  throughout 
the  winter  by  probing  the  unfortunate  trees  with 
the  points  of  their  sabres  and  bayonets.  The  result 
was  that  in  1832  all  the  agaves  flowered  in  March. 
There  were  at  least  1500  of  them,  and  not  one  failed 
to  produce  its  blossoms,  (b)  On  the  2nd  September, 
1903,  a  serious  fire  broke  out  in  the  village  of  La 
Chaussee-sur-Marne,  destroying  part  of  it.  Driven 
by  the  wind,  the  flames  reached  the  confines  of  the 
village,  and  also  attacked  a  neighbouring  orchard 
of  pear  and  apple  trees.     The  first  five  rows  of  trees 


STATEMENT   OF   THE    THEORY        17 

were  almost  entirely  destroyed.  In  the  sixth  row 
the  damage  was  not  so  complete,  but,  nevertheless, 
a  great  number  of  branches  were  singed.  On  the 
uninjured  branches  a  peculiar  phenomenon  was 
observed  :  a  second  flowering  took  place,  beginning 
about  the  end  of  September,  and  in  October  all  the 
branches  that  were  not  too  much  damaged  were 
covered  with  blossoms  just  as  in  May.  That  is  not 
all.  In  another  direction  the  fire  stopped  in  close 
proximity  to  some  lilac  trees,  and  these,  as  well  as  a 
few  plum  trees,  flowered  for  the  second  time,  (c)  A 
similar  fact  was  communicated  to  the  Biological 
Society,  very  soon  after  the  preceding  episode,  by 
M.  Apert,  who  saw  in  the  south  of  France  lilac  trees 
beginning  to  blossom  in  October,  after  they  had  in 
July  and  August  been  devastated  by  the  Spanish 
fly  (cantharides).  The  trees  that  had  been  most 
damaged  were  those  which  bore  the  thickest  foliage 
and  the  finest  flowers. 

If  we  pass  from  the  vegetable  to  the  animal 
kingdom,  we  notice  in  inferior  animals  the  same 
power  of  regeneration.  One  may  say  that,  as  a 
rule,  the  greater  the  risk  of  injury  to  a  limb  the  more 
it  is  formed  with  a  view  to  its  easy  reproduction. 
Examples :  the  feelers  of  starfish,  the  claws  of 
lobsters  and  crabs,  the  legs  of  spiders,  the  tactile 
horns  of  snails  and  slugs,  the  tails  of  lizards  and 
slow-worms,  and  the  fins  of  fishes. 

The  claws  of  the  large  common  crab,  the  rock 
lobster,  etc.,  fall  off  when  gripped  by  an  enemy. 
This  is  done  by  the  animal  itself,  which  is  able  to 
break  off  its  own  claw  by  contracting  a  particular 
muscle  (the  long  extensor  muscle  of  the  second 
joint).  The  self-amputated  crab  does  not  die  of 
haemorrhage  ;  there  is  no  bleeding  at  all,  the  wound 
being   hermetically    closed    at    once   by   a   special 

2 


i8  AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

membrane.  Another  object  of  this  instantaneous 
closing  is  to  prevent  microbes  from  penetrating 
into  the  system. 

A  still  more  remarkable  fact  has  to  be  mentioned  : 
not  only  does  the  lobster  find  it  easy  to  sacrifice  a 
claw  when  the  necessity  arises,  preferring  to  save 
its  life  at  the  cost  of  a  limb,  but  the  act  of  mutila- 
tion brings  into  play  a  whole  system  of  nerves  and 
muscles,  so  that  the  claw  holds  on  to  the  enemy  with 
unabated  vigour,  and  while  the  latter  is  endeavour- 
ing to  get  rid  of  the  encumbrance  the  lobster 
escapes  with  its  life. 

A  somewhat  similar  phenomenon  is  presented  by 
the  lizard's  tail,  which  is  also  easily  detached  from 
the  body  ;  instead  of  lying  still,  however,  it  attracts 
the  enemy's  attention  by  wriggling  about,  and  in 
the  meantime  the  lizard  whisks  out  of  sight  with 
its  accustomed  rapidity. 

Very  soon  a  new  claw,  or  a  new  tail,  as  the  case 
may  be,  grows  in  the  place  of  the  old,  ready  to  be 
sacrificed  in  its  turn  when  life  depends  on  it. 

In  some  kinds  of  animals  one  can  see  a  regenera- 
tion even  more  important  and  complete.     Every- 
body knows  that  if  an  earth-worm  is  cut  into  two 
nearly  similar  parts,  one  of  the  two  fragments  will 
develop  a  head  with  its  special  organs,  and  the  other 
a  tail  with  all  that  belongs  to  it. 
/     If  a  turbellarian  (a  kind  of  flat-worm)  is  cut  into 
/  twelve  pieces,  in  a  short  time  each  of  the  pieces  will 
I  become  a  new  and  complete  individual  of  the  same 
I  species.     You  can  chop  up  a  single  nais  (the  name 
'^  of  a  transparent  worm  found  in  river-grass)  into 
more  than  thirty  pieces,  and  get  as  many  perfect 
worms  out  of  it. 

Spallanzani,  when  experimenting  on  salamanders, 
saw  the  four  legs  with  their  bones,  ninety-eight  in 


STATEMENT   OF   THE   THEORY       19 

all,  as  well  as  the  tail  with  its  vertebrae,  reproduced 
six  times  in  the  space  of  three  months ;  in  others  he 
saw  the  lower  jaw  formed  a  second  time  with  all  its 
muscles,  blood-vessels,  and  teeth. 

We  may  notice  that  the  healing  power  manifested 
in  the  regeneration  of  a  broken  or  injured  part 
appears  to  be  greater  or  smaller  according  as  the 
life  of  the  animal  is  more  or  less  dependent  on  that 
part  of  the  body  :  worms  renew  their  heads  before 
their  tails ;  and  in  fishes,  the  fins  that  are  lost  are 
reproduced  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  first 
the  caudal,  next  the  pectoral,  then  the  ventral,  and 
finally  the  dorsal  fins. 

Other  examples  could  be  given,  but  the  above 
will  suffice  to  call  attention  to  the  important  part 
played  by  this  regenerative  faculty. 

Lobsters  and  spiders  are  subject  at  any  moment 
to  lose  their  claws  or  legs,  snails  and  slugs  their 
tactile  horns,  lizards  their  tails,  plants  their  leaves 
and  branches ;  none  of  these  being  sufficiently 
intelligent  or  strong  to  preserve  themselves  from 
such  accidents.  Nature  has  therefore  strongly 
developed  in  them  this  healing  power  which 
permits  them  to  continue  to  live  in  spite  of  the 
dangers  to  which  they  are  exposed.^ 

We  must  notice,  however,  that  this  power 
diminishes  in  force  as  we  ascend  the  scale  of  animal 
species.  This  is  because  the  intelligence  or  strength 
of  the  animal  enables  it  to  avoid  the  dangers  to 
which  inferior  animals  would  succumb  were  it  not 
for  this  marvellous  gift.  With  superior  animals 
this  power  of  regeneration  does  not  extend  to  the 
rebuilding  of  an  entire  limb.     Nevertheless,  after 

^  This  recuperative  power  is  also  observable  in  crystals.  A 
crystal  with  a  corner  broken  off,  or  otherwise  damaged,  will 
succeed  in  repairing  the  injury  if  immersed  in  some  nutritive  fluid. 


20  AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

the  removal  of  a  third,  or  as  much  as  a  half,  of  the 
important  gland  we  call  the  liver,  that  organ  is 
capable  of  a  new  growth  which  will  restore  it  to  its 
original  size  and  weight. 

A  limb  that  has  been  paralysed  through  the  sever- 
ing of  a  nerve  will  often  regain  the  power  of  move- 
ment after  a  certain  length  of  time.  A  number  of 
tiny  fibres  grow  towards  each  other  from  the  ends 
of  the  severed  nerve,  and  directly  two  of  them  meet 
they  unite  and  increase  in  thickness,  while  the  others, 
being  of  no  further  use,  disappear.  The  nerve 
having  been  repaired  in  this  fashion  and  commu- 
nication re-established,  movement  is  once  more 
possible. 

We  know,  too,  that  skin  grows  again  when  it  has 
been  torn,  that  severed  muscles  and  broken  bones 
reunite,  and  that  flesh  wounds,  though  deep,  will 
heal  over.  And  finally,  the  old  and  enfeebled  cells 
in  all  parts  of  the  body  are  constantly  being  re- 
placed by  young  and  vigorous  ones.     This  is  an 

important  fact. 

*  *  * 

A  living  being  is  not  only  surrounded  by  visible 
enemies  (the  **  devourers,"  which  also  wish  to 
live),  but  he  is  also  attacked  by  invisible  foes  : 
the  microbes  of  disease.  He  struggles  consciously 
against  his  visible  enemies,  but  the  war  against 
pathogenetic  bacteria  is  carried  on  without  his 
knowledge.  Among  superior  animals,  man,  for 
example,  we  know  the  important  function  which 
the  ordinary  living  cells,  especially  the  phagocytes, 
perform  in  the  contest  with  disease. ^  Phagocytes 
never  rest ;  they  destroy  cells  that,  being  worn 
out,    are   an   encumbrance   and  a    danger.      They 

1  Blood  in  its  normal  state  contains  one  white  corpuscle 
(phagocyte  or  leucocyte)  to  every  500  or  800  red  corpuscles. 


STATEMENT   OF   THE    THEORY        21 

remove  from  the  circulation  the  old  red  corpuscles 
that  have  become  useless,  they  form  a  protective 
barrier  round  inflamed  parts,  and  contribute  to  the 
healing  of  external  wounds.  Finally,  guided  by 
their  chemotactic  sensibility,^  the  mobile  phago- 
cytes rush  towards  the  place  that  is  invaded  by 
pathogenetic  ^  bacteria,  and — in  a  healthy  man 
and  under  normal  conditions — they  courageously 
attack  the  microbes,  absorb  them  into  their  own 
substance,  kill  them,  and  make  them  disappear 
by  a  process  of  digestion. 

Or,  again,  they  manufacture,  jointly  with  the 
serum,  certain  antitoxins  which  are  destined  to 
neutralise  the  poisons  resulting  from  the  vital 
activity  of  the  invaders.  (The  excreta  and  some 
of  the  chemical  compounds  derived  from  the 
physiological  functions  of  animals  and  plants  are 
poisonous  to  their  producer,  which  is  the  reason 
why  they  are  thrown  off.  Thus,  man,  for  example, 
produces  oxide  of  carbon,  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
organic  poisons,  urea,  etc.  Now,  the  excreta  of 
certain  microbes  are  poisonous  to  man,  whence  the 
necessity  of  neutralising  them  by  means  of  anti- 
toxins. This  is  what  is  done  by  phagocytes.)  In 
one  way  or  another,  then,  and  without  ever  tiring 
of  their  task,  our  phagocytes  put  forth  all  their 
energy  for  the  protection  of  the  body.  Thus, 
until  a  wound  is  completely  healed,  innumerable 
white  corpuscles  remain  close  to  the  spot,  where  they 
are  continually  engaged  not  only  in  putting  hostile 

^  A  peculiar  sensitive  faculty  wliich  enables  phagocytes  to 
recognise  the  chemical  constituents  of  foreign  bodies  that  enter 
the  system. 

^  Microbes  in  their  relation  to  man  can  be  divided  into  three 
main  classes  :  the  pathogenetic  (those  that  set  up  disease),  the 
beneficent  {e.g.  those  that  probably  help  in  the  processes  of 
digestion),  and  the  neutral  (which  are  by  far  the  most  numerous). 


22  AN   ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

microbes  out  of  the  way,  but  also  in  removing 
dead  tissue  and  worn-out  cells,  their  object  being 
thoroughly  to  cleanse  and  purify  the  field  of  battle. 
In  certain  cases,  as,  for  instance,  an  abscess,  the 
fierceness  of  the  struggle  is  patent  to  the  eye.  For 
the  pus  is  largely  composed  of  phagocytes  that 
have  been  slain  in  the  fight,  and  are  then,  for 
sanitary  reasons,  ehminated  from  the  system. 

These  phagocytes  of  ours  are  also  frequently  in 
the  habit  of  "  mobilising,"  that  is  to  say,  they 
increase  very  rapidly  in  number  whenever  the  hostile 
microbes  themselves  are  multiplying  fast.  Take  a 
single  example  :  in  pneumonia,  their  numbers  rise 
from  the  normal  figure  of  7000  per  cubic  millimetre 
of  blood  to  20,000.  This  highly  active  production 
of  new  white  corpuscles  takes  place  more  especially 
in  our  ganglia  and  in  the  marrow  of  our  bones. 

We  shall  better  appreciate  the  usefulness  of  the 
phagocytes  if  we  remember  that  they  have  to  fight 
the  bacteria  of  as  many  as  thirty  infectious  diseases. 
And,  what  is  truly  wonderful,  these  battles  go  on 
automatically  without  our  being  conscious  of  them  ; 
our  phagocytes  sacrifice  themselves  for  the  general 
welfare,  and  we  know  nothing  of  it. 

Not  only  the  white  corpuscles,  however,  but  all  our 
organs,  all  parts  of  the  body,  fight  against  disease. 

It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  our  body,  both 
as  a  whole  and  in  each  of  its  parts,  is  perpetually 
on  the  qui  vive.  Observation  will  show  that  each 
of  our  bodily  organs  is,  indeed,  constantly  exerting 
itself  to  the  full  in  order  to  protect  the  whole  system 
and  to  keep  it  in  good  working  order. 

Let  us  take  as  an  example  the  glands  and  their 
various  functions. 

The  liver  converts  certain  highly  poisonous 
ammoniac  salts  into  urea,  which  is  eliminated  from 


STATEMENT   OF   THE   THEORY        23 

the  body  ;  it  transforms  or  neutralises  most  other 
poisons  (thus,  it  reduces  by  half  the  toxic  effects 
of  nicotine)  ;  it  stops  metallic  salts  on  their  way, 
and  proceeds  to  eliminate  them  very  slowly,  in  such 
tiny  quantities  that  they  will  not  endanger  the 
system.  Moreover,  it  fights  against  the  microbes 
which  produce  malignant  carbuncles,  the  staphylo- 
coccus, and  the  bacilli  of  cholera,  dysentery,  and 
typhoid  fever.  The  liver  also  manufactures  red 
corpuscles,  accumulates  reserves  of  iron,  and  stores 
up  sugar.  It  plays  an  important  part  in  digestion 
by  its  action  on  albuminoids  and  fat.  Lastly,  it 
secretes  from  1200  to  1300  grammes  of  bile  a  day. 
(Bile  turns  fatty  substances  into  an  emulsion, 
prevents  intestinal  fermentation,  and  by  promoting 
peristaltic  contraction  helps  in  the  evacuation  of 
the  bowels.) 

The  spleen  acts  as  a  storehouse  for  iron,  forms 
red  and  white  corpuscles,  and  through  the  latter 
helps  to  protect  the  system  against  all  sorts  of 
infection.  Violent  emotions  cause  the  spleen  to 
produce  certain  secretions  which  strengthen  the 
muscles  and  also  render  them  less  sensitive  to  pain. 
Thanks  to  these  secretions,  then,  the  body  is 
automatically  brought  into  the  most  favourable 
condition  either  for  defence  or  for  attack. 

The  thyroid  gland  acts  as  a  regulator  of  the 
processes  of  nutrition  as  well  as  of  the  temperature 
of  the  body.  It  is  also  of  capital  importance  for 
the  proper  working  of  the  brain,  in  that  it  prevents 
poisoning  of  the  central  nervous  system. 

The  pituitary  gland  helps  to  co-ordinate  the 
movements  of  the  body.  It  increases  the  strength 
of  our  muscles,  influences  the  development  of 
our  bony  structure,  and  promotes  cerebral  circula- 
tion and  nutrition. 


24  AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

The  pancreas  produces  a  digestive  juice  which 
plays  the  principal  part  in  breaking  up  carbo- 
hydrates, fats,  and  albuminoids.  It  also  regulates 
the  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  body. 

The  kidney,  or  rather  kidneys,  filter  the  sub- 
stances contained  in  the  blood,  keeping  back  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  what  is  necessary,  and  eliminating 
all  waste  matter,  poisons,  and  other  superfluous 
substances. 

/    The  appendix  helps  in  the  contractions  of  the 
xaecum  and  the  large  intestine,  and  thus  facilitates 
evacuations. 

The  thymus  is  an  organ  which  is  essential  to 
the  growth  of  the  bony  framework  of  the  body, 
and  plays  an  important  part  in  the  nutritive 
functions  during  childhood.  Being  of  no  further 
service  in  the  adult,  it  disappears. 

The  five  million  microscopic  glands,  which  in 
twenty-four  hours  pour  out  6-5  kilogrammes  of 
gastric  juice  on  our  food. 

The  sweat-glands,  which  enable  the  body  to 
endure  excessive  heat,  and  which  are  continually 
throwing  off  poisons  of  various  kinds  in  the  form 
of  visible  or  invisible  perspiration. 

The  sebaceous  glands,  the  secretion  of  which 
prevents  the  skin  from  becoming  dry  and  keeps 
it  supple. 

To  this  far  from  exhaustive  list  ^  we  may  add 
three  sets  of  glands  which,  though  most  useful, 
are  of  secondary  importance. 

The  glands  surrounding  the  duct  of  the  outer 

1  Readers  who  are  desirous  of  extending  their  knowledge  of 
the  various  functions  of  the  glands  and  the  bodily  organs  in 
general,  without  being  troubled  by  too  many  technical  terms, 
may  consult  Les  merveilles  du  corps  humain,  a  popular  treatise 
by  Doctors  L,  and  P.  Murat.  These  writers  enumerate  fifty 
distinct  functions  of  the  liver. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       25 

ear  which  ends  in  the  tympanum,  an  extremely 
delicate  membrane.  The  slightest  trace  of  dust 
makes  these  glands  contract  and  pour  a  bitter, 
sticky  fluid  over  the  intruding  body,  in  order  to 
hinder  its  further  progress. 

The  lachrymal  glands  providing  the  liquid  with 
which  the  eyelids  wash  the  cornea,  so  that  the 
vision  may  always  be  kept  clear. 

The  glands  situated  behind  the  eyelashes,  which 
exude  a  greasy  liquid  to  ease  the  sliding  movement 
of  the  lids,  thus  guarding  against  the  discomfort 
and  local  irritation  that  the  friction  would  otherwise 
set  up. 

Later  on  we  shall  speak  of  the  heart,  the  lungs, 
the  skin,  etc.  But  meanwhile  the  facts  enumerated 
above  are  sufficient  to  make  it  clear,  even  at  this 
stage,  that  every  part  of  the  human  system  does 
yeoman  service,  as  we  have  said,  for  the  protection 
as  well  as  for  the  even  working  of  the  whole,  and 
that,  for  the  most  part,  while  we  are  unconscious 
of  what  is  going  on.  This  incidentally  accounts 
for  the  frequency  of  what  may  be  called  spontaneous 
recoveries.  It  happens  now  and  then  that  we 
are  distinctly  conscious  of  not  feeling  well,  of 
being  "  off  colour."  Yet,  the  next  day,  without 
having  taken  any  drug,  we  find  ourselves  all  right 
again.  That  is  such  a  common  experience  that 
we  do  not  even  notice  this  extraordinary  recupera- 
tive power  that  our  body  possesses. 

In  more  serious  cases,  when  the  doctor  is  pre- 
scribing mild  remedies  of  no  great  efficacy,  because 
he  is  not  yet  certain  what  is  wrong,  a  few  days' 
rest  will  often  suffice  to  dispel  the  trouble  ;  our 
organs  have  been  able  to  do  by  themselves  all 
that  was  necessary. 

Bear  in  mind,  too,  that  cases  of  epidemic  disease 


26  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

in  which  the  system  cures  itself  are  far  more 
numerous  than  those  that  require  medicine.  In 
a  cholera  epidemic,  for  example,  if  statistics  could 
be  taken  of  those  cases  that  ended  fatally  and 
of  those  others  in  which  some  intestinal  disturb- 
ance was  followed  by  spontaneous  recovery,  a 
latio  would  be  found  to  exist  of  several  hundred 
"  natural  "  cures  to  each  death. 

It  is  also  a  fact  that,  in  something  like  eighty 
cases  out  of  a  hundred,  the  autopsy  of  persons 
killed  in  accidents  or  by  diseases  other  than  tuber- 
culosis reveals  the  existence  of  pulmonary  lesions 
perfectly  healed.  Such  individuals  must  have  been 
consumptive  during  a  certain  period  of  their  lives, 
and  probably  without  knowing  it,  the  disease 
having  been  transient  and  the  recovery  spontaneous. 


Why  these  desperate  battles,  these  unceasing 
struggles  against  the  forces  of  death  and  de- 
struction ?  Why  this  wonderful  unity  and  har- 
)  monious  co-operation  between  all  our  organs  ? 
*\  Because  a  persistent  tendency  to  live  is  the  essential 
law  of  all  existence,  not  only  among  men,  but 
among  all  living  creatures.  The  being  that  has 
received  the  gift  of  life  wishes  to  go  on  living. 
This  desire  manifests  itself  in  all  the  grades  of 
creation,  in  all  beings  at  every  stage  of  development. 

Again,  life  might  disappear  if  living  beings 
could  not  adapt  themselves  to  new  circumstances 
when  their  surroundings  change,  but  were  always 
obhged  to  remain  in  their  original  Hkeness.  Nature 
has  foreseen  that,  and  has  endowed  all  living 
creatures  with  a  wonderful  power  of  adaptation. 
Let  us  take  a  few  examples. 

We  know  that  water    is    indispensable  to   Hfe, 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       27 

because  numerous  vital  functions  can  only  be 
performed  if  plants  or  animals  contain  a  certain 
minimum  of  liquid.  Therefore  it  is  evident  that, 
under  penalty  of  ceasing  to  exist,  the  flora  of  the 
desert  has  been  obliged  to  modify  its  primitive 
habits  in  order  to  adapt  itself  to  the  almost  per- 
manent drought  of  its  habitat.  This  problem 
was  difficult  to  solve,  yet  plants  have  solved  it 
successfully.  They  have  even  found  several  dif- 
ferent means  of  attaining  their  end,  of  which  the 
following  six  are  the  most  common  : — 

{a)  The  leaves  which  by  their  respiration  cause 
the  water  to  evaporate  are  reduced  to  the  strict 
minimum,  being  small  and  few  in  number.  In 
some  plants  the  leaves  have  even  disappeared 
altogether,  and  the  stem  suffices  for  the  respiratory 
functions. 

ip)  Plants  use  the  short  rainy  season  in  which 
to  do  all  their  work — to  grow,  blossom,  and  ripen 
their  seeds,  which  will  be  able  to  wait  without 
danger  till  the  next  season, — and  then  they  wither 
and  die. 

[c)  Roots  spread  prodigiously,  sometimes  later- 
ally to  a  distance  of  fifteen  to  twenty  yards,  in 
order  to  absorb  the  rain-water  before  it  evaporates ; 
sometimes  vertically  downwards,  in  order  to  seek 
in  the  depths  of  the  soil  the  water  without  which 
they  cannot  live.  Roots  may  attain  to  twenty 
times  the  height  of  the  plant  above  the  ground. 

[d)  Plants  develop  on  their  surface  glands  for 
secreting  salts  that  absorb  the  humidity  of  the 
air. 

[e)  They  store,  either  in  their  roots  or  in  their 
stems  and  leaves,  the  greatest  possible  quantity 
of  water  during  the  rainy  season,  and,  more- 
over,  prevent   its   evaporation  in   many   different 


28  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

ways  in  order  to  make  their  provision  of  water 
last  the  whole  of  the  dry  season. 

(/)  They  prevent  the  soil  from  losing  its  moisture 
through  evaporation  caused  by  the  heat  of  the  sun 
and  the  action  of  the  wind,  by  covering  the  ground 
closely  and  in  thick  layers  with  their  leaves  and 
stems.  (For  more  details  see  La  Nature  et  la  Vie, 
by  H.  de  Varigny.) 

Very  clever  means  of  adaptation  are  found  also 
among  aquatic  plants.  Moisture  being  injurious 
to  pollen,  they  have  recourse  to  numerous  ex- 
pedients (for  here,  too,  there  is  great  diversity  in 
the  methods  employed)  in  order  to  preserve  their 
pollen  from  contact  with  the  water.  These  are 
some  examples  : — 

{a)  In  the  Vallisneria,  the  female  flowers  have 
a  very  long,  corkscrew-shaped  stalk  which  when 
stretched  out  brings  the  flower  above  the  water. 
At  a  particular  moment,  the  male  flowers  break 
the  bonds  that  keep  them  down,  and,  by  means  of 
an  air-bubble  in  the  encasing  envelope,  rise  quickly 
to  the  surface.  Here  they  open  out  and  set  free 
the  pollen  which  fertilises  the  female  flowers.  The 
latter  then  contract  their  spiral  stalks  and  sink 
back  to  the  bottom,  where  the  fruit  is  developed. 

{h)  The  Utricularia  follow  a  different  plan. 
Their  roots  are  provided  with  a  number  of  vesicles 
which  are  closed  by  a  kind  of  movable  cover. 
These  vesicles  are  filled  with  a  mucus  of  such 
density  as  to  keep  the  plant  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water.  But  at  the  favourable  moment  this  gives 
place  to  certain  gases,  the  lightness  of  which  enables 
the  plant  to  come  up  and  flower  at  the  surface. 
Subsequently,  owing  to  fresh  mucus  produced  by 
the  root,  the  plant  sinks  once  more  to  the  bottom. 

(c)  The    water-chestnut    has    adopted     a    very 


STATEMENT   OF   THE   THEORY       29 

similar  method.  It  lives  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water  until  the  season  of  fertilisation,  when  the 
petioles  become  inflated  and  bring  the  plant  to 
the  surface.  The  flowering  takes  place  in  the  open 
air,  after  which  the  petioles  fill  with  water  again, 
and  the  plant  sinks  back  to  ripen  its  seeds. 

(d)  The  varec  is  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the 
sea,  and  its  flowers  are  wrapped  up  in  its  leaves. 
Though  the  leaves  are  open  at  one  end,  the  flowers 
are  prevented  from  getting  wet  by  giving  off  gases 
which  resist  the  pressure  of  the  water,  so  that  not 
a  drop  can  penetrate  within. 

{e)  Most  of  the  other  aquatic  plants  are  lazier 
or  less  intelligent,  being  content  to  wait  until  their 
stalks  have  reached  the  surface  of  the  water  before 
they  flower. 

Mention  of  the  varec  tempts  us  to  say  a  few 
words  more  on  the  subject  of  marine  plants. 
Sunlight  is  broken  up  by  sea-water  into  seven 
colours,  just  as  when  passing  through  a  prism. 
The  red  rays,  which  are  stopped  first,  do  not  go 
deeper  than  30  metres.  Inasmuch  as  these  rays 
are  essential  to  algae,  as  to  all  green  plants,  for 
the  formation  of  chlorophyll,  most  of  this  family 
do  not  flourish  at  a  greater  depth  than  30  metres. 
There  are  certain  algae,  however,  more  energetic 
than  the  rest,  which  employ  a  very  ingenious 
device  for  increasing  the  depth  at  which  they  are 
able  to  live.  They  secrete  a  red  pigment  which  is 
spread  over  the  layer  of  chlorophyll,  and  thus  trans- 
forms the  blue  rays  from  the  sun,  which  penetrate 
200  metres  below  the  surface,  into  the  red  light 
that  is  indispensable  to  them.  That  is  the  depth, 
then,  to  which  these  green  algae  have  extended  their 
domain,  namely,  170  metres  lower  than  the  depth 
accessible  to  their  less  enterprising  brethren. 


30  AN    ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Climbing  plants,  too,  are  of  great  interest  from 
the  point  of  view  of  adaptation.  Their  stalks 
being  unable  to  support  themselves,  unaided,  in 
a  vertical  position,  these  plants  have  also  invented 
several  ingenious  ways  of  circumventing  the  diffi- 
culty. 

(a)  In  some  cases  the  stem  twines  itself  round 
the  supporting  body — ^hop,  bindweed,  etc. 

(b)  Others,  of  which  the  vine  is  the  typical 
example,  have  developed  true  prehensile  organs, 
that  is  to  say,  tendrils  of  a  peculiar  sensitiveness 
which  makes  them  aware  of  the  presence  of  a 
prop  for  them  to  encircle.  If  we  watch  a  vine 
stalk,  we  shall  see  a  number  of  outstretched  tendrils 
feeling  about  in  the  void.  Their  tips  slowly 
describe  a  circle  which  is  completed  within  an 
hour  or  thereabouts.  When  the  tendril  has  suc- 
ceeded in  finding  an  object  to  attach  itself  to,  it 
throws  its  ends  round  it  like  a  ring,  and  an  hour 
later  it  is  clinging  so  tightly  that  it  cannot  be 
torn  away  without  difficulty. 

(c)  The  nasturtium,  clematis,  etc.,  manage  to 
do  without  tendrils  ;  they  content  themselves  with 
imparting  similar  sensitiveness  to  the  petioles  of 
their  leaves,  and  fasten  themselves  by  means  of 
these. 

(d)  Ivy  provides  all  its  offshoots  from  end  to  end 
with  clinging  roots  which  might  be  compared  to 
grappling-hooks. 

(e)  The  Japanese  vine  fixes  itself  more  firmly 
still  by  exuding  from  the  extremities  of  its  smaller 
sprays  a  drop  of  cement  so  strongly  adhesive  that 
it  is  necessary  to  tear  the  spray  itself  in  order  to 
loosen  its  hold.  This  cement,  which  is'''^'manu- 
factured  for  this  special  purpose,  appears  only  at 
the  proper  place  and  at  the  right  moment,  that  is, 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY        31 

when  the  tip  of  the  spray  comes  in  contact  with 
something  to  support  it. 

Every  autumn  we  witness  an  adaptive  expedient 
which  is  resorted  to  by  trees  in  order  that  they  may 
live  through  the  cold  season  without  injury.  Low 
temperature  impedes  the  vital  functions  of  a  tree, 
and  causes  the  roots  to  send  an  ever-diminishing 
quantity  of  nourishment  to  the  branches  and  the 
leaves.  Were  the  leaves  to  remain,  the  resultant 
evaporation  would  quickly  exhaust  the  store  of 
moisture  contained  in  the  tree,  and  death  would 
ensue.  How  does  the  tree  adapt  itself  to  these 
new  conditions  ?  Simply  by  getting  rid  of  its 
leaves,  a  surgical  operation  intelHgently  performed. 
For,  long  before  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  there  is  formed 
at  the  point  of  junction  between  the  branch  and 
the  petiole  an  exceedingly  fine  layer  of  material 
somewhat  resembling  cork,  which  gradually  blocks 
the  passage  of  the  sap,  and  which,  when  the  leaf 
has  fallen,  hermetically  closes  up  the  opening, 
so  that  neither  a  single  drop  of  sap  can  escape 
nor  any  microscopic  foe  make  its  way  in. 

(This  surgical  operation  recalls  that  performed 
by  the  lobster.  He  breaks  off  his  claw  for  the 
same  reason  that  the  tree  sacrifices  all  its  leaves — 
in  order  to  save  its  life ;  and  in  each  case  the 
wound  heals  immediately  so  as  to  prevent  the 
outflow  of  nutritive  fluid  and  the  entry  of  patho- 
genetic microbes.) 

Less  heroic  measures  are  adopted  by  evergreen 
trees  and  shrubs  living  in  cold  or  temperate  climates. 
Their  leaves  present  a  hard  and,  as  it  were,  glazed 
surface  which  makes  the  process  of  evaporation 
slower ;  moreover,  their  stomata  (tiny  apertures 
m  the  leaf  through  which  water  evaporates)  are 
closed  during  the  winter.     Lastly,  the  majority  of 


32  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

evergreens  have,  in  addition,  reduced  the  surface 
of  their  leaves,  and  consequently  the  area  of 
transpiration,  to  a  minimum  by  making  them  more 
or  less  needle-shaped.  This  is  the  case,  for  example, 
with  the  pine,  the  fir,  the  yew,  the  cypress,  etc. 

It  should  be  noted,  however,  that  in  warm  and 
damp  climates  the  shedding  of  the  leaf,  being 
unnecessary,  does  not  occur.  Thus  it  is  that  trees 
which  in  cold  or  temperate  regions  strip  themselves 
of  their  leaves  every  autumn,  become  evergreen 
when  they  are  transported  to  a  damp,  hot  country. 
In  Reunion,  for  instance,  peach  trees  raised  from 
European  seedlings  continue  to  shed  their  leaves 
every  winter  when  they  are  planted  in  the  interior 
of  the  island,  whereas  those  that  are  placed  on 
the  sea-coast,  which  is  warmer  and  damper,  have 
ceased  to  shed  them,  or  nearly  so,  by  the  end  of 
twenty  years;  and  their  descendants  inherit  this 
tendency,  which  becomes  more  and  more  pro- 
nounced as  the  generations  go  by,  so  that  in  course 
of  time  there  is  complete  adaptation  to  the  new 
climate. 

Here  is  another  example  of  adaptation,  to  be 
found  at  our  very  feet.  If,  as  is  done  in  England, 
lawns  are  closely  mown  with  a  mowing-machine 
once  a  week,  from  May  to  September,  one  may 
notice  that  the  different  plants  which  grow  in  the 
turf — daisies,  dandelions,  fennel,  buttercups,  clover, 
etc. — manage  to  blossom,  although  they  are  often 
mutilated,  and  by  shortening  their  stems  try  to 
enable  their  flowers  to  escape  the  mowing  machine. 

The  grasses  of  which  these  lawns  are  composed 
cannot  do  this,  since  their  flowers,  unlike  those 
of  the  daisies,  etc.,  do  not  appear  at  the  end  of  the 
stalk,  but  all  along  it.  Determined,  however,  at 
all  costs  to  prevent  the  race  from  dying  out,  they 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       33 

throw  out  young  shoots  in  every  direction  with  an 
energy  that  is  only  enhanced  by  the  frequency 
of  their  mutilation,  so  that  the  oftener  lawns  are 
mown,  the  finer  and  more  velvety  they  become. 

If  we  pass  from  plants  to  insects  or  Crustacea 
that  inhabit  dark  caverns,  we  see  a  transformation 
of  a  no  less  ingenious  kind.  Here  it  is  not  a  case 
of  evading  the  mowing-machine,  of  economising 
water,  or  of  keeping  pollen  dry,  but  of  adaptation 
to  the  absence  of  light.  These  cave-dwellers  have 
simply  suppressed  the  organ  of  sight  as  being  no 
longer  of  any  use,  while  on  the  other  hand  they 
have  increased  as  much  as  possible  the  length  of 
all  their  appendages  :  claws,  antennae,  and  tails, 
which  are  sometimes  three  or  four  times  as  long 
as  the  body,  somewhat  after  the  fashion  of  blind 
men,  who  add  to  the  length  of  their  arms  by  holding 
a  stick.  This  permits  them  to  become  rapidly 
aware  of  the  presence  and  shape  of  the  obstacles  they 
encounter,  and,  what  is  still  more  important,  of 
the  presence  of  their  prey.  Nature  wishes  life 
to  exist  everywhere,  even  in  the  darkest  and  most 
silent  places.  The  cave-dwelling  animals,  there- 
fore, have  adapted  themselves  to  an  environment 
for  which  they  were  not  originally  intended. 

(Since  i8g6  a  laboratory  has  existed  in  the 
catacombs  of  Paris,  in  which  these  changes  may  be 
observed.) 

The  same  thing  happens  in  the  depths  of  the 
sea.  Many  fishes,  that  live  so  far  from  the  surface 
as  to  be  in  complete  darkness,  have  imitated  the 
insects  and  Crustacea  we  have  been  speaking  about, 
and  a  multitude  of  marine  animals  are  found  in 
the  ocean  whose  antennae,  feelers,  and  fin  processes 
have  been  lengthened  to  an  extraordinary  degree 
in  order  to  make  up  for  their  lack  of  vision.     Certain 

3 


34  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

kinds  of  prawn,  for  instance,  have  antennae  which 
are  five  or  six  times  as  long  as  their  body. 

There  are  other  animals,  however,  which  have 
refused  to  become  blind.  All  inhabitants  of  great 
ocean-depths  that  possess  eyes  are  also  furnished 
with  luminous  organs  capable  of  emitting  rays  of 
sufficient  power  to  light  up  their  path.  As  an 
example,  we  may  point  to  the  halosauropsis, 
living  at  a  depth  of  1500  metres,  which  is  just  an 
ordinary  long-shaped  fish  like  the  whiting  in 
appearance,  but  which  has  two  rows  of  apertures  on 
each  side  of  its  body,  regular  "  port-holes  "  con- 
taining a  phosphorescent  substance ;  these  are 
beacons  or  projectors  which  it  employs  to  light  up 
its  path,  and  also,  perhaps,  during  the  mating 
season,  for  the  purpose  of  sexual  attraction  or 
recognition. 

But  it  is  not  enough  that  it  should  make  its 
own  light :  it  must  have  the  power  of  concealing 
its  presence,  in  an  emergency,  from  dangerous 
and  inquisitive  foes.  Nature,  with  her  customary 
foresight,  has  provided  the  requisite  mechanism 
to  that  end.  Each  of  the  little  lamps  is  fitted  with 
a  kind  of  valve  or  lid  which  the  fish  can  raise  or 
lower  at  will,  thus  revealing  or  hiding  the  source  of 
the  Hght  it  carries. 

Other  inhabitants  of  the  submarine  world  are 
able  to  emit  light  of  various  colours,  by  means  of 
special  organs  called  chromatophores. 

On  board  the  Prince  of  Monaco's  yacht,  between 
the  Azores  and  the  Canaries,  Dr  Joubin  had  the 
opportunity  of  admiring  a  large  cephalopod  which 
was  sending  out  streams  of  vivid  blue,  green,  and 
red  Hght ;  on  the  animal  taking  alarm,  this  was 
abruptly  cut  off,  as  by  the  turning  of  a  switch. 
Most  of  these  luminous  organs  are  marvellously 


STATEMENT  OF  THE   THEORY       35 

constructed,  after  the  fashion  of  a  bicycle  lamp 
or  the  head-hghts  of  a  motor  car.  The  phos- 
phorescent substance,  whence  the  Hght  is  derived, 
is  situated  between  a  cavity,  Hned  with  a  shiny 
membrane  that  acts  as  a  reflector,  and  a  lens, 
analogous  to  the  crystalline  lens  of  the  eye,  which 
is  intended  to  project  the  rays  of  light  in  front. 
And,  in  addition  to  this,  there  are  glands  at  the 
animal's  disposal  containing  liquids  of  different 
colours,  by  means  of  which,  when  thrown  in  front 
of  the  projecting  lens,  it  is  able  to  tint  the  light  that 
it  pours  forth. 

Thousands  upon  thousands  of  marine  animals 
are  provided  with  these  organs.  Indeed,  out  of 
1007  different  species  of  fishes  living  in  the  great  ' 
ocean  depths,  no  fewer  than  112  (or  a  ninth  of  the 
total  number)  are  known  to  be  equipped  with 
phosphorescent  plates.  (See  on  this  subject  the 
splendid  researches  of  Dr  Joubin,  professor  at  the 
Institut  Oceanographique.) 

What  is  the  nature  of  this  light  ?  Is  the  pheno- 
menon one  of  simple  phosphorescence  ?  Does  it 
originate  in  electricity,  or  is  the  cause  to  be  sought 
for  amongst  the  mysterious  phenomena  of  radio- 
activity ? 

The  study  of  the  subject,  so  far,  has  furnished 
no  answer  to  this  question.  It  was  shown,  however, 
by  Professor  Chun,  in  the  course  of  the  Valdivia 
expedition,  that  these  luminous  inhabitants  of 
the  great  depths  could  be  photographed  in  the 
midst  of  their  activity,  their  own  light  acting  on 
the  sensitive  plate. 

Here  is  another  case  of  adaptation,  which  we 
mention  because  it  is  rather  curious.  In  the  inner 
compartments  of  salt-ponds  (marais  salants),  where 
salt  is  obtained  by  evaporation,  a  small  crustacean. 


36  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

the  Artemia  salina,  is  found,  which  has  thoroughly 
adapted  itself  to  living  in  water  that  has  almost 
reached  the  point  of  saline  saturation,  and  cannot 
live  elsewhere,  although  this  environment  is  to 
some  extent  artificial.  This  crustacean,  then,  is 
only  met  with  in  salt-ponds,  in  spite  of  its  close 
affinity  to  the  Branchiopoda,  which  can  only  live  in 
fresh  water. 

Lastly,  we  may  add  that  soles,  turbo t,  etc.,  in 
order  to  make  themselves  invisible,  especially 
when  young  and  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  many 
enemies,  can  easily  assimilate  the  colour  of  their 
body  to  that  of  the  ground  over  which  they  happen 
to  be.  This  is  done  by  opening  or  contracting 
different  cells  in  the  skin  containing  pigments  of 
various  hues. 

An  instance  of  rapid  adaptation  to  environment 
may  be  found  in  our  own  bodies.  When  we 
remove  from  a  lower  altitude  to  a  higher,  we  have 
to  fight  against  the  increased  rarefaction  of  the 
atmosphere,  or  in  other  words  against  the  dearth 
of  oxygen.  The  method  of  adaptation  employed 
by  the  system  consists  in  extending  the  respiratory 
surface  of  the  blood,  by  augmenting  the  number  of 
red  corpuscles  (which  store  up  oxygen).  For 
example,  at  Zurich  (412  metres  above  sea-level) 
the  number  of  red  corpuscles  per  cubic  milli- 
metre is  5,752,000 ;  at  Davos  (1600  metres),  it 
is  6,551,000  ;  at  Arosa  (1800  metres),  7,000,000  ; 
and  in  the  Cordillera  of  the  Andes  (4932  metres), 
8,000,000.  On  going  down  into  the  plain  again,  the 
number  of  red  corpuscles  reverts  to  the  normal. 

Altogether,  it  has  been  well  said  that  in  Nature 
all  is  adaptation :  the  peculiar  formation  of  web- 
footed  birds,  the  long  legs  and  bill  of  the  waders, 
the  oil-glands  of  water-fowl  and  sea-birds  which 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY        37 

prevent  their  feathers  from  getting  wet,  the  whole 
structure  of  the  dromedary  and  the  camel  as  adapted 
for  life  in  the  desert,  the  swimming-bladder  which 
enables  fishes  to  poise  themselves  in  the  water  at 
different  depths,  the  horizontal  movement  made 
by  the  jaws  of  herbivorous  animals,  the  shape  of 
the  teeth  in  camivora,  herbivora,  and  rodents 
respectively,  of  the  beak  in  granivora,  insectivora, 
and  birds  of  prey,  of  the  limbs  in  jumpers  (such 
as  the  kangaroo)  and  climbers,  in  quadrupeds  and 
bipeds,  and  so  on  almost  indefinitely. 


A  very  interesting  case  of  mental  adaptation 
may  be  observed  also  in  man — convincing  proof 
of  which  has  been  given  by  the  Association  for 
Promoting  the  General  Welfare  of  the  Blind.  This 
Association,  after  a  long  inquiry,  declares  that 
blind  people  are  almost  unanimous  in  saying  that 
"  their  deprivation  of  sight  does  not  distress  them 
in  the  least,  and  that  they  scarcely  spare  a  thought 
to  the  circumstance  "  ;  but  that  the  poverty,  on  the 
other  hand,  which  often  accompanies  loss  of  sight 
causes  them  much  anxiety.  Consequently,  they  do 
not  want  people  to  waste  their  pity  on  an  infirmity 
to  which  they  have  adapted  themselves  ;  they  only 
want  to  be  taught  how  to  earn  their  bread. 

The  few  instances  of  adaptation  that  we  have 
given  are  enough  to  show  that  living  creatures,  in 
order  to  continue  as  such,  are  always  ready,  in  a 
general  way,  to  make  the  very  best  of  such  con- 
ditions as  are  imposed  on  them  by  chance  or  by  '" 

environment. 

*  *  * 

After  speaking  of  adaptation,  it  is  only  proper 
also  to  point  out  the  wonderful  constancy  of  the 


38  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

vital  element  in  man,  whenever  such  constancy  is 
either  necessary  or  favourable  to  life. 

The  first  animal  cell — a  marine  organism — made 
its  appearance  in  the  pre-Cambrian  period.  The 
water  of  the  oceans  in  which  it  was  bathed  probably 
contained  saline  matter  in  the  proportion  of  8 
grammes  to  looo.i  Now,  after  an  incalculable 
lapse  of  time,  and  at  the  other  end  of  the  chain, 
we  find  that  the  blood  cells  of  the  human  body 
float  in  a  lymphatic  plasma  the  chemical  com- 
position of  which  is  exactly  similar  to  the  sea-water 
of  the  pre-Cambrian  period.  The  amount  of  sea- 
salt  in  the  blood  is  still  between  seven  and  eight 
parts  per  thousand.  This  ratio  will  remain  constant 
whether  a  man  leaves  off  taking  salt  with  his  food 
or  undergoes  a  strict  fast  or  puts  himself  on  an 
excessively  salt  diet.  In  the  first  and  second  cases, 
the  kidneys  will  stop  all  elimination  of  salt,  while 
in  the  third  case  they  will  get  rid  of  it  as  fast  as 
possible.  But  if  the  renal  filter  should  happen  to 
be  working  badly  and  an  excess  of  salt  were  retained 
in  the  body,  water  would  at  once  be  kept  back  also, 
in  sufficient  quantity  to  dissolve  the  salt  in  the 
blood  and  to  bring  it  back  to  the  figure  indicated. 
This  extra  water  will  be  stored  away  in  the  loose 
tissues  of  the  legs,  ankles,  etc.,  and  cause  swelling 
—a  dropsical  affection  which  will  disappear  of  itself 
if  the  patient  is  deprived  of  salt  for  some  time. 

Whatever  we  do,  then,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to 
change  this  ratio  of  seven  or  eight  to  a  thousand, 
and  we  may  say  with  Quint  on  that  "  animal  life, 
which  appeared  as  a  cell  in  seas  of  a  particular 
degree  of  salinity,  has  tended  to  maintain  this 
original  proportion  throughout  the  whole  series 
of  zoological  evolution." 

1  The  proportion  is  now  33  grammes,  on  an  average. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       39 

A  fact  that  adds  to  our  surprise  is  that  the  blood 
of  mammalia — the  creatures  which  have  travelled 
furthest  from  their  marine  origin — contains  not 
only  the  above-mentioned  proportion  of  common 
salt  (chloride  of  sodium),  but  also  all  the  other 
substances  which  are  found  in  sea-water ;  and, 
moreover,  they  occur  in  the  same  relative  order  of 
importance  in  our  blood  as  in  the  ocean  :  (i)  chloride 
of  sodium ;  (2)  potassium,  calcium,  magnesium, 
sulphur ;  (3)  silicium,  carbon,  phosphorus,  fiuor, 
iron,  nitrogen  ;  lastly,  in  infinitesimal  quantities : 
iodine,  bromium,  manganese,  copper,  lead,  zinc, 
lithium,  silver,  arsenic,  borium,  barium,  and  alu- 
minium. 

The  reason  for  this  constancy  is  evident.  The 
living  cell  appeared  in  the  ocean  at  the  moment  when 
the  chemical  constitution  of  sea-water  was  most 
favourable  to  life.  But  that  which  was  favourable 
to  the  life  of  the  cell  millions  of  years  ago  is  still 
favourable  to  it  at  the  present  day.  That  explains 
the  special  care  with  which  Nature  has  perpetuated 
for  the  cell's  behoof  a  fluid  which  constitutes  the 
best  hfe-preserving  medium,  that  is,  one  in  which 
the  cell  can  live  and  flourish. 


Quite  as  remarkable  is  Nature's  constancy  in 
the  matter  of  body-heat. 

We  know  that  the  internal  temperature  of  the 
human  body  must,  under  pain  of  death,  oscillate 
only  between  a  few  degrees  (centigrade)  above  and 
a  few  degrees  below  the  normal  temperature.  Yet 
we  are  exposed  to  much  greater  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold,  to  which  the  body  has  been  obliged  to 
accommodate  itself.  How  did  it  solve  this  problem 
of  keeping  the  blood  at  the  same  degree  of  heat 


40  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

whatever  might  be  the  surrounding  temperature  ? 
In  order  to  resist  excessive  heat  it  developed 
sudoriferous  glands,  which  work  all  the  more  actively 
in  proportion  as  the  temperature  is  raised.  The 
hotter  the  air  is,  the  more  the  body  perspires  ;  the 
perspiration,  evaporating,  cools  the  body,  and  thus 
the  internal  temperature  is  kept  within  the  limits 
that  are  compatible  with  Hfe.  If,  on  the  contrary, 
the  temperature  is  too  low,  there  is  automatic  peri- 
pheric vaso-constriction,  in  order  to  prevent  the 
blood  from  cooling  itself  at  the  surface,  and  then  an 
increase  in  the  intensity  of  molecular  exchanges 
(that  is  to  say,  internal  combustion),  which  leads 
to  the  production  of  warmth. 

Shivering  also  warms  us,  by  means  of  a  series  of 
short  but  rapidly  repeated  muscular  movements. 
And  sometimes,  in  addition  to  these  shght  tremb- 
lings. Nature  has  recourse  to  a  spasm  of  a  much  more 
violent  kind,  the  sneeze,  which  serves  the  same 
purpose  as  shivering. 

Another  circumstance  which  may  well  cause  us 
to  wonder  is  the  extreme  sensitiveness  of  our  heat- 
regulating  apparatus.  The  internal  temperature 
of  a  normal  man  varies  only  by  nine-tenths  of  a 
degree  in  the  twenty-four  hours.  At  12  noon  it  is 
37*1°  (centigrade) ;  it  rises  until  4  o'clock,  when  it 
attains  its  maximum  of  37*3° ;  at  8  p.m.  it  has  fallen 
again  to  37°  ;  at  12  midnight  it  is  only  36-5°,  and 
finally  falls  as  low  as  36-4°  between  3  and  4  in  the 

morning. 

*  *  * 

It  has  sometimes  been  said  that  Nature  need  not 
have  invented  all  this  complicated  apparatus,  if 
she  had  been  content  to  produce  only  cold-blooded 
animals  whose  hfe  becomes  more  sluggish  as  the 
temperature  falls.     But  a  moment's  reflection  shows 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       41 

that  cold-blooded  are  inferior  to  warm-blooded 
animals  in  that  their  activity  is  necessarily  inter- 
mittent, except  in  tropical  countries.  A  warm- 
blooded animal,  on  the  other  hand,  keeps  its  organs 
bathed  in  a  perpetual  summer-heat  (about  37° 
centigrade  in  man),  and  consequently  its  nerves 
and  nerve-centres,  its  muscles  and  all  its  organs,  are 
always  ready  to  **  give  of  their  very  best."  The 
internal  temperature  remaining  thus  constant 
shields  the  organs  of  the  body  from  the  thermal 
irregularities  of  its  outward  environment,  and  en- 
ables the  system  to  put  forth  the  amount  of  effort 
that  is  required  at  any  given  moment.  This  power 
is  an  important  factor  making  for  superiority  in 
the  struggle  for  existence. 

A  long  chapter  might  be  written  on  the  "  multi- 
farious precautions  "  taken  by  Nature  for  the  pre- 
servation of  life,  but  that  would  carry  us  too  far 
afield.  We  will  confine  ourselves  to  the  follow- 
ing observations. 

The  inner  tissues  of  the  body  are  hardly  sensitive 
to  pain  ;  a  sudden  wound,  penetrating  deeply  into 
the  flesh,  gives  one  rather  the  feeling,  at  first,  of 
having  received  a  heavy  blow.  The  skin,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  extremely  sensitive  ;  a  small  sore  on 
the  finger,  a  slight  burn,  or  even  ordinary  chaps, 
can  be  very  painful.  This  sensitiveness  of  the 
skin  makes  us  do  our  best  to  avoid  injuries.  Were 
it  otherwise,  we  should  not  be  automatically  warned 
against  danger,  in  which  case  children,  and  doubt- 
less older  people  too,  would,  out  of  sheer  light- 
heartedness  or  thoughtlessness,  expose  themselves 
to  a  great  many  more  wounds,  burns,  bruises,  and 
the  like  (perhaps  with  serious  consequences)  than 
they  do  now. 

>|c  )|c  in 


42  ^A^  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

The  four  examples  that  follow,  taken  from  the 
^world  of  plants,  of  beetles,  of  crustaceans,  and  of 
/birds  respectively,  show  us  that  Nature  is  equally 
I  sohcitous  for  the  welfare  of  all  her  children. 
L    The  root-fibres  of  plants  are  protected  at  their 
tips  by  a  kind  of  sheath  made  of  harder  material, 
the  resistance  of  which  enables  the  root  to  penetrate 
the  soil  more  easily.     For  the  spreading  of  roots 
in  the  earth  is  accompanied  by  a  slow  circular  move- 
ment not  unhke  that  of  a  gimlet.     Without  this 
sheath,  the  delicate  tissue  of  the  rootlets  would 
soon    be    bruised   and    worn    away    by    continual 
friction  against  the  gritty  substances  of  the  subsoil, 
such  as  grains  of  sand,  sharp  pieces  of  flint,  granite, 
etc. ;   in  any  case,  progress  would  be  very  difficult, 
especially  in   hard,   compact   soil.     If   the   sheath 
should  chance  to  be  destroyed,  new  ramifications, 
each  with  a  similar  sheath,  are  put  forth  a  little 
higher  up  the  root,  and  the  underground  journey 
in  search  of  nutriment  is  resumed. 

The  female  larva  of  the  beetle,  when  digging 
the  hole  in  which  she  will  be  transformed  into  a 
chrysalis,  makes  it  the  size  of  her  own  body,  whereas 
the  male,  who  at  that  time  is  not  bigger  than  the 
female,  makes  a  hole  twice  as  large  as  himself — 
probably  without  knowing  the  reason  why.  This 
extra  labour  seems  useless  at  the  time,  but  it  is 
nevertheless  necessary,  because  the  horns  of  the 
male  beetle  are  of  practically  the  same  dimensions 
as  his  body,  and  if  his  hole  were  not  larger  than  that 
of  the  female  he  would  not  be  able  to  get  out. 

The  moulting  period  of  the  crab,  the  lobster,  and 
other  Crustacea  is  heralded  by  a  slit  along  the  back  of 
the  shell.  Through  this  relatively  narrow  opening 
the  whole  body  has  to  pass.  In  order  to  facilitate 
the  operation,  the  body  is  loosened  from  its  shell 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       43 

all  the  way  round  by  the  production  of  a  semi- 
liquid  substance  which  also  serves  as  a  lubricating 
agent. 

Young  birds  before  they  are  hatched  have  a 
hard,  sharp  projection  at  the  end  of  their  beaks, 
which  is  known  as  a  "  diamond."  Without  this 
weapon,  the  chick  would  hardly  be  able  to  break 
through  the  shell  and  emerge  from  the  egg,  for  the 
mother-bird  is  not  always  at  hand  to  assist  the 
hatching  process.  Once  outside,  the  *'  diamond  " 
is  of  no  further  service  and  soon  drops  off. 


To  sum  up,  the  superabundance  of  life  in  the  air, 
in  water,  in  the  earth  and  on  its  surface  ;  the  secre- 
tion of  acid  or  bitter  juices,  and  the  growth  of  prickly 
hairs,  thorns,  etc.,  on  plants,  as  a  means  of  pro- 
tection ;  the  devices  for  attracting  insects  resorted 
to  by  plants  so  as  to  ensure  fertilisation  ;  the  means 
they  employ  to  scatter  their  seeds  ;  the  maternal 
foresight  shown  by  insects,  although  they  die  for 
the  most  part  without  seeing  their  posterity  ;  the 
varying  quantity  of  seeds,  eggs,  or  spawn,  in  order 
that  the  number  of  young  may  be  in  direct  ratio 
to  the  dangers  they  will  have  to  encounter  ;  the 
recuperative  faculty  (regeneration),  always  most 
powerful  there  where  it  is  needed  most ;  the  *'  multi- 
farious precautions  "  taken  by  Nature  ;  the  sen- 
sitiveness of  the  skin  ;  the  contractibility  of  the 
iris,  which  prevent  too  strong  a  light  from  entering 
the  eye  and  injuring  the  sight ;  the  movements  by 
which  the  shape  of  the  lens  is  accommodated  to 
different  distances,  enabling  us  to  see  objects  several 
yards  off  as  clearly  as  those  which  are  only  a  few 
inches  from  our  eyes  ;  the  instantaneous  accom- 
modation of  the  drum  of  the  ear  to  the  number  of 


44  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

vibrations,  so  that  we  are  able  to  hear  all  sounds 
ranging  from  30  to  23,000  vibrations  per  second  ; 
the  movements  of  the  lungs,  resembling  those  of 
a  pair  of  bellows  ;  ^  the  beating  of  the  heart  and  the 
circulation  of  the  blood  ;  ^    the  movements  of  the 
oesophagus,   the  tube  through  which  food  passes 
from  the  back  of  the  mouth  to  the  stomach  (its 
fibres   are   contractile   and,    by   exerting   pressure 
like  a  hand  partly  opening  and  shutting,  they  drive 
the  food  downwards,   the  force  of  gravity  alone 
being  insufficient  for  the  purpose)  ;   the  movements 
of  the  stomach,  controlled  by  muscular  fibres  of 
three    distinct    types — longitudinal,    perpendicular 
to  the  axis,  and  oblique,  in  the  shape  of  an  S,  causing 
the  food  to  be  churned  in  every  direction  ;    the 
movements  of  the  intestine,  which  Hke  those  of 
the  stomach  have  a  twofold  purpose — to  blend  the 
food  thoroughly  with  the  gastric  juices,  in  order 
that   chemical   reaction   may   take   place   without 
difficulty,    and   secondly,    to    bring    the    nutritive 
chyle  in  contact  with  the  greatest  possible  number 
of  cells  lining  the  alimentary  canal,  in  order  that 
it  may  find  its  way  into  the  blood  by  osmosis  ;  the 
selection  and  absorption  by  each   cell,   from  the 
substances  brought  to  it  by  the  blood,  of  those 
best  suited  to  its  purpose,  the  substances  chosen 
varying  according  to  the  special  functions  of  the 
cell ;     vomiting,    that    is,    spasmodic    movements 
set  up  by  the  stomach  in  order  to  get  rid  of  poisons 
or  food  which  for  one  reason  or  another  cannot  be 
digested  ;    convulsive  movements  of  the  intestine 
(colic)  and  the  copious  secretion  of  mucus  (diarrhoea) , 
the  object  being  to  expel  the  poison  in  a  diluted 
condition,  after  it  has  passed  through  the  stomach  ; 
the  cough  which  is  immediately  provoked  by  the 

1  Of  which  we  shall  speak  later  on. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       45 

approach  of  any  foreign  body  towards  the  windpipe 
— when,  for  instance,  food  goes  down  the  wrong 
way  (the  object  of  this  sudden  and  irresistible 
movement  of  the  upper  laryngeal  nerve  is  to  expel 
the  foreign  body  and  thus  prevent  death  by  chok- 
ing) ;  shivering ;  the  means  employed  to  ensure 
a  constant  temperature  in  the  body  ;  the  means 
employed  to  ensure  a  constant  degree  of  salinity  ; 
the  welding  together  of  broken  bones,  muscles,  and 
nerves  ;  the  healing  over  of  wounds  ;  the  means 
employed  for  increasing  the  number  of  red  cor- 
puscles at  high  altitudes  ;  the  battles  waged  by 
the  phagocytes,  and  their  increase  in  number 
whenever  the  necessity  arises  ;  the  manufacture, 
in  the  serum  of  the  blood,  of  antitoxins  whose 
business  it  is  to  combat  the  harmful  effect  of  poisons 
produced  by  pathogenetic  microbes  (the  chemical 
composition  of  the  antitoxin  varies  according  to 
the  nature  of  the  poison  secreted  by  these  microbes)  ; 
the  numerous  chemical  combinations  which  give 
rise  to  the  substances  secreted  by  our  glands ; 
cases  of  spontaneous  recovery  from  illness ;  the 
mechanical  action  of  sucking  in  the  new-born 
child  of  the  human  and  all  mammalian  species, 
without  which  the  feeding  of  the  young  and  con- 
sequently life  itself  would  be  impossible ;  the 
adaptation  of  living  beings  to  every  kind  of  environ- 
ment and  to  the  most  diverse  circumstances  ;  the 
constant  co-operation  of  all  our  organs  with  the 
object  of  protecting  the  system  as  a  whole  and 
ensuring  its  proper  working ;  the  energy  with 
which  all  creatures  fight  against  destruction  ;  the 
instinct  of  reproduction  : — all  these  facts  and  many 
more  besides,  which  will  occur  to  everybody  out 
of  his  own  reading  or  experience,  prove  con- 
clusively that  Nature  is  making  incessant  efforts 


46  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

not  only  to  produce   life   but   also  to  ensure  its 
continuity. 

We  are  therefore  bound  to  admit  that  the  tend- 
ency of  life  to  persist  is  the  most  universal  of  laws, 
and  that  life,  so  far  from  being  a  fortuitous  pheno- 
menon, is  on  the  contrary  the  grand  object  which 
Nature  sets  herself  to  achieve. 
\  If  another  proof  were  needed  to  establish  this 
truth,  we  might  point  to  the  fact  that  Nature,  in 
her  passion  for  life,  and  for  fear  lest  we  should 
forget  to  do  all  that  we  should  do  in  order  to  live, 
has  arranged  that  all  the  acts  necessary  to  our 
existence  should  be  more  or  less  mechanical  (as 
may  be  seen  by  running  through  the  list  given 
above) .  These  important  acts,  then,  are  performed 
independently  of  our  will,  and  even,  for  the  most 
part,  without  our  being  conscious  of  them.  Ex- 
ceptions must  be  made  for  the  acts  of  eating,  drink- 
ing, and  sleeping,  which  are  to  a  certain  extent 
within  our  control.  '*  To  a  certain  extent  "  only  ; 
for  if  we  abstain  therefrom  for  too  long  a  period,  our 
hunger,  thirst,  and  desire  for  sleep  will  become  so 
imperious  that  we  are  obliged  to  gratify  them. 


By  the  term  "  life  "  we  mean  the  total  activity  of 
organised  substance,  without  inquiring  whether 
this  activity  is  due  to  some  particular  vital  force 
in  Nature  or  is  produced  by  the  interplay  of  physico- 
chemical  forces. 


A  question,  however,  that  we  may  well  ask  is, 
whether  Nature  is  content  simply  to  produce  life 
of  any  sort,  or  whether  she  has  set  herself  some  more 
definite  aim. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       47 

A  glance  at  the  past  will  show  us  in  what  direction 
Nature  is  working. 

The  development  of  "  things  and  beings  "  from 
what  may  be  called  "  the  beginning  "  up  to  the 
appearance  of  man  may  be  divided  into  many 
successive  stages  of  unequal  length. 

We  do  not  know  how  our  Earth  came  into  being, 
nor  how  hfe  made  its  appearance.  But  whatever 
the  hypothesis  adopted,  it  is  certain  that  there  was 
a  time  when,  the  temperature  of  the  ocean,  very 
high  at  the  beginning,  having  gradually  fallen,  hfe 
was  able  to  manifest  itself,  and  it  appeared. 

The  first  living  things  were  plants  of  extremely 
simple  construction,  unicellular  algae.  This  simple 
cell  fulfilled  in  itself  all  the  vital  functions. 

At  the  end  of  a  period  which  was  certainly 
very  long,  the  first  humble  representatives  of  the 
animal  kingdom  made  their  appearance ;  these 
were  the  protozoa  (infusoria,  foraminifera)  lying  on 
the  borders  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms, 
gelatinous  lumps  without  any  enveloping  membrane, 
something  more  than  plants,  but  not  yet  animals. 

The  ascending  movement  continues  :  Coelenterata 
(sea-anemones,  medusae,  madrepores,  corals)  people 
the  seas. 

And  successively  :  Echinodermata  (starfish,  sea- 
urchins)  ;  annelids ;  molluscs ;  Arthropoda  (Crus- 
tacea, insects)  ;  ganoid  fishes  ;  batrachians  (am- 
phibia) ;  reptiles  ;  dinosaurs  ;  birds  ;  marsupials ; 
teleostean  fishes  (provided  with  a  complete  skeleton); 
placentals  ;   finally  man.^ 

1  The  development  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  was  parallel 
with  that  of  the  animal  kingdom.  The  Cryptogamia  (the  first 
terrestrial  plants,  but  without  flowers)  appeared  about  the  same 
time  as  the  Arthropoda;  the  appearance  of  the  Phanerogamia 
(plants  with  flowers)  probably  coincided  with  that  of  the  teleos- 
tean fishes. 


48  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Scientists  do  not  altogether  agree  as  to  the  order 
in  which  the  different  animal  species  made  their 
appearance,  but  the  list  given  above  would  seem 
to  be  the  most  probable.  In  any  case,  the  main 
groups  may  be  said  to  have  succeeded  one  another 
in  the  following  order  :  (i)  vegetable  cells  (uni- 
cellular algae) ;  (2)  protozoa ;  (3)  invertebrates ; 
(4)  fishes  ;  (5)  amphibia  ;  (6)  reptiles  ;  (7)  birds  ; 
(8)  mammals  without  placenta ;  (9)  mammals  with 
placenta  ;    (10)  man. 

The  upward  movement,  in  which  we  have  named 
the  principal  stages,  may  be  explained  either  by 
the  theory  of  transformism  or  by  the  theory  of 
mutations,  that  is,  spontaneous  variations. 

Transformism  explains  the  progressive  develop- 
ment of  living  things  by  an  influence  acting  on  them 
as  it  were  from  the  outside  (natural  selection, 
struggle  for  existence,  etc.).  The  theory  of  muta- 
tions, on  the  other  hand,  asserts  that  this  upward 
movement  is  chiefly  due  to  a  force  exerted  not 
inwards  from  without  but  outwards  from  within. 
This  expansive  force  would  thus  be  inherent  in 
matter  itself.  Matter,  or  substance,  would  be 
organised  and  developed  as  soon  as  circumstances 
permitted.  The  impulse  would  not  be  external  and 
gradual,  but  internal  and  abrupt. 

Thus,  for  example,  the  appearance  of  Crustacea 
with  their  shell  and  articulated  claws,  and  of  insects 
with  their  highly  perfected  compound  eyes,  is  re- 
garded by  G.  Bohn  not  so  much  as  a  case  of  evolution, 
as  an  organic  and  psychic  revolution  brought  about 
in  remote  ages  by  a  series  of  mutations  or  sudden, 
spontaneous  variations. 

From  the  standpoint  of  our  theory,  it  matters 
little  whether  evolution  has  proceeded  by  imper- 
ceptible gradations  or  by  sudden  mutations.     The 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       49 

important  fact  for  us  is  the  upward  trend  itself, 
since   this  ascent,   which  has  been  going  on   for 
milUons  of  years,  is  a  clear  indication  of  Nature's  > 
steadfast  desire  and  her  unwavering  pursuit  of  the  \ 
goal  she  has  in  view.  i 

To  examine  in  detail  the  formation  and  habits 
of  each  series  of  the  beings  which  we  have  just 
enumerated  would  be  useless  for  those  of  our  readers 
who  have  studied  these  questions,  and  who  will  recall 
without  further  explanation  the  physical  and  intel- 
lectual progress  that  distinguishes  every  new  series 
from  the  preceding  ones.  Let  them  only  bear  in 
mind  that  progress  consists  above  all  in  the  growing 
tendency  of  bodily  organs  to  become  more  special- 
ised, and  in  the  ever-increasing  number  and  com- 
plexity of  their  functions.  As  for  those  who  have 
only  a  superficial  acquaintance  with  the  subject, 
they  can  easily  compare  the  beginning  and  the  end 
of  the  series  :  thus,  contrasting  the  primitive  sea- 
weed or  the  protozoa  with  man,  they  may  see  in 
what  direction  the  development  has  taken  place, 
and  realise  the  distance  that  has  thereby  been 
covered.  They  will  see  the  abyss — which,  never- 
theless, has  been  gradually  bridged  over — between 
the  starting-point,  the  protozoa,  small  shapeless 
specks  of  a  gelatinous  substance,  possessing  only 
the  vaguest  rudiments  of  sensation,  and  the  point 
we  have  at  present  attained  :  Man,  whose  body  is 
formed  of  a  multitude  of  different  parts,  each  of 
which  has  its  own  proper  function  to  fulfil ;  Man, 
whose  brain  has  discovered  scientific  and  mathe- 
matical truths  and  reduced  them  to  a  system, 
who  has  measured  the  distances  which  separate  the 
Earth  from  the  neighbouring  planets  and  even  from 
the  stars,  who  knows  the  weight  of  those  planets 
and  the  composition   of  those  stars  ;    Man,   who 

4 


50  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

every  day  produces  new  inventions  or  makes  new 
discoveries  for  the  use  of  the  whole  race,  who  helps 
his  fellow-beings,  encourages  them  by  his  sympathy, 
and  nurses  them  in  their  sickness ;  Man,  who 
sacrifices  himself  for  an  ideal,  who  is  moved  by  the 
sight  of  what  is  beautiful  in  Nature,  and  who  can 
reproduce  it  by  the  arts — who  by  means  of  har- 
monious sounds  expresses  the  most  delicate  emo- 
tions ;  Man,  who  by  means  of  language  can  com- 
municate to  others  his  most  subtle  thoughts,  and 
by  electricity  transmit  them  instantaneously  to  all 
parts  of  the  Earth. 

And  so  many  illustrious  or  obscure  heroes,  so 
many  just  and  upright  men,  famous  or  unknown  ! 


It  is  important,  however,  to  notice  that  this 
development  has  not  taken  place  by  leaps  and 
bounds.  We  must  not  think  that  one  day  there 
were  protozoa,  and  that  the  next  day  the  human  race 
appeared  suddenly  in  all  its  beauty  and  in  all  the 
plenitude  of  its  intelligence.  On  the  contrary, 
evolution  has  been  extremely  slow  and  often  turned 
out  of  the  direct  path  by  various  obstacles.  Its 
course  has  therefore  been  by  no  means  rectilinear,  but 
has  described  numerous  loops  and  zigzags.  Before 
man  was  evolved,  many  varied  forms  of  life  suc- 
ceeded one  another,  each  rising  only  a  very  little 
way  above  the  one  before  it,  and  some  even  faUing 
back  again.  Nevertheless,  in  spite  of  everything, 
the  upward  movement  continued,  thanks  to  the 
irresistible  tendency  towards  improvement.  Life, 
then,  passed  through  many  stages  and  assumed 
many  different  forms  before  it  came  to  Man. 

But  the  progress  made  has  always  depended  much 
more  on  mental  qualities  than  on  brute  strength. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY        51 

Thus,  the  gigantic  reptiles  of  the  Secondary  Period 
with  their  tiny  brain  were  superseded  by  the  some- 
what more  intelUgent  mammals  of  the  Tertiary 
Age.  Later  on,  these  in  their  turn,  though  physi- 
cally stronger,  had  to  make  way  for  the  ancestors 
of  the  quadrupeds  existing  at  the  present  day, 
in  whom  again  there  was  slightly  greater  cerebral 
development. 

A  similar  relation  exists  between  man  and  the 
great  anthropoid  apes.  In  their  structure  and 
bodily  organs  the  latter  can  claim  superiority, 
being  both  stronger  and  more  agile  than  man  ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  man's  brain  is  much  larger  and 
more  skilfully  constructed  ;  hence  it  is  man  that 
has  come  off  victor  in  the  struggle  for  supremacy. 

The  structural  resemblance  between  quadrupeds, 
quadrumana,  and  man  is  unquestionably  very  great : 
the  skeleton  in  each  case  is  built  on  the  same  lines, 
the  organs  are  the  same,  and  they  function  in  the 
same  manner  (eyes,  ears,  tongue,  muscles,  nerves, 
heart,  liver,  kidneys,  arteries,  lungs,  etc.).  It 
would  have  been  easy  for  Nature  to  concentrate 
her  selective  process  on  physical  strength,  and  simply 
increase  the  power  of  the  muscles  ;  but  she  solved 
the  problem  much  more  neatly  by  developing  and 
perfecting  the  brain. 

In  considering  the  struggle  for  existence,  especi- 
ally amongst  the  lower  animals,  one  is  rather  apt 
to  assume  that  strength  is  the  only  thing  that  counts. 
Yet  it  is  evident  that  there  are  many  qualities, 
both  intellectual  and  moral,  which  play  an  even 
more  important  part,  such  as  attentiveness,  perse- 
verance, energy,  patience,  courage,  adroitness, 
power  of  observation,  and  judgment.  And  it  is 
precisely  the  importance  of  these  qualities  in  the 
struggle  for   existence   that  has  led  to  their  develop- 


52  •  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

ment,  first  of  all  in  the  lower  animals  and  afterwards 
in  man. 

In  all  probability,  the  importance  of  these  mental 
qualities  is  only  imperfectly  realised  by  people  who 
have  never  studied  animals  in  their  natural  state. 
So  we  will  take  an  example  :   a  tiger  on  the  prowl. 

To  begin  with,  the  tiger  has  to  observe  which 
spots  are  haunted  by  the  animals  on  which  he 
wishes  to  prey,  so  that  he  may  lie  in  wait  for  them 
there  and  not  elsewhere  (power  of  observation). 
Next,  he  will  have  to  select,  alongside  a  certain 
path  or  near  such  and  such  a  pool,  a  lurking-place 
so  concealed  from  view  as  to  enable  him  to  see  what 
is  going  on  while  remaining  invisible  to  his  victim 
(judgment).  There  he  will  often  have  to  wait  and 
watch  for  a  very  long  time  (patience).  Now  at 
last  the  victim  slowly  approaches,  suspecting  no 
danger  and  stopping  every  now  and  then  to  browse. 
During  these  minutes,  which  must  seem  like  hours 
to  a  ravenous  stomach,  the  tiger  has  to  remain 
absolutely  motionless  in  order  not  to  give  the  alarm. 
And  now  the  doomed  animal  is  only  a  few  paces 
away,  and  a  quiver  of  intense  desire  runs  through 
the  frame  of  our  hunter ;  every  second  adds  to  his 
excitement.  Yet  in  spite  of  the  temptation  he 
waits — waits  until  his  prey  is  well  within  his  reach 
(self-mastery).  At  last  the  moment  so  patiently 
and  impatiently  awaited  has  arrived  ;  with  one 
bound  the  tiger  springs  on  his  victim  and  kills  it 
(grasp  of  the  situation,  decision,  rapidity  of  exe- 
cution, agiUty).  Should  the  victim  scent  danger 
and  make  its  escape  at  the  last  moment,  all  has  to 
be  begun  over  again  (perseverance).  In  short,  all 
the  mental  qualities  required  by  a  hunter  when 
stalking  game  are,  for  exactly  the  same  reason, 
equally  essential  to  the  beast  of  prey. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY        53 

There  is  no  doubt  at  all  that  the  amount  of  food 
obtained  by  the  flesh-eating  animal,  as  by  the 
hunter,  will  depend  entirely  on  the  degree  in  which 
these  qualities  are  developed. 

Again,  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it  is  intelli- 
gence rather  than  strength  that  enables  an  animal 
to  escape  from  its  foes  or  to  rescue  its  young  from 
peril.  We  shall  see  further  on  by  what  clever 
feints  and  stratagems  partridges,  thrushes,  wood- 
cocks, the  females  of  deer,  etc.,  protect  their  young 
when  in  danger  of  being  devoured.  Also  the  many 
tricks  resorted  to  by  the  fox  in  order  to  escape  from 
its  enemies  are  familiar  to  us  all. 

But  the  struggle  for  food  being  particularly  keen 
amongst  animals  of  the  same  species,  since  they  feed 
on  the  same  kinds  of  prey,  the  amount  of  which  is 
generally  limited,  it  follows  that,  in  order  to  survive, 
especially  in  time  of  scarcity,  the  carnivorous  beast 
must  not  only  be  stronger  and  more  intelligent  than 
the  animals  it  pursues,  but  also  more  persevering, 
intelligent,  etc.,  than  its  own  congeners.  This  last 
remark  requires  some  amplification. 

It  is  not  uncommonly  believed  that  all  animals 
of  the  same  species  stand  on  the  same  intellectual 
footing.  If  we  see  a  lion,  an  elephant,  a  partridge, 
a  goose,  or  a  hare  act  in  a  certain  manner  under 
certain  circumstances,  we  are  apt  to  assume  that 
all  lions,  all  elephants,  all  partridges,  all  geese, 
and  all  hares  will  act  in  precisely  the  same  manner 
when  confronted  with  similar  circumstances,  and 
that  consequently  none  of  them  is  intellectually 
superior  to  his  fellows.  Nothing  could  be  further 
from  the  truth.  Every  animal,  on  the  contrary, 
has  an  individuality,  a  personality,  a  character,  an 
intelligence  of  its  own,  distinguishing  it  from  its 
companions.     Those  of  our  readers  who  have  kept 


54  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

a  number  of  cats,  dogs,  or  birds  of  the  same  species 
must  surely  have  had  frequent  occasion  to  observe 
how  widely  each  individual  differs  in  its  behaviour 
from  the  rest. 

In  order  to  test  the  truth  of  this  assertion,  all 
one  has  to  do  is  to  observe,  quite  superficially, 
when  one  happens  to  be  in  the  country,  the  way 
in  which  birds  behave  when  at  liberty.  We  need 
only  throw  down  a  few  seeds  or  bread-crumbs  on 
a  piece  of  open  ground,  and  then  wait  at  a  little 
distance,  without  moving.  If  the  experiment  is 
made  in  winter-time,  when  food  is  scarce,  a  number 
of  birds — sparrows,  for  instance — will  soon  appear 
on  the  scene.  And  amongst  this  flock  of  birds 
there  will  always  be  some  that  are  bolder,  more 
alert,  more  courageous,  more  enterprising  than  the 
rest.  While  the  timid  ones  remain  at  a  respectful 
distance,  the  braver  spirits  after  a  little  hesitation 
will  approach  by  hops  or  short  flights  and,  seeing 
nothing  to  make  them  suspicious,  will  swoop  down 
on  the  tempting  morsel  and  carry  it  off  or  devour 
it  on  the  spot  according  to  their  degree  of  hardihood 
or  their  assurance  of  safety.  The  timid  ones  keep 
their  distance,  advancing  a  little,  only  to  retreat 
again ;  the  least  movement  on  our  part  causes 
them  to  disappear,  whereas  the  braver  birds  some- 
times set  us  at  defiance,  hopping  up  closer  still  in 
order  to  secure  a  final  crumb. 

This  simple  experiment  has  already  separated 
our  sparrows  into  two  classes  :  the  brave  and  the 
timid.  A  longer  course  of  observation  would  show 
us  that  among  these  little  birds,  as  among  all  other 
animals,  there  are  some  that  make  better  parents 
than  others,  some  that  are  more  affectionate,  more 
self-sacrificing,  and  so  on  with  regard  to  many  other 
qualities. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       55 

Professional  animal-tamers  and  trainers  in  cir- 
cuses and  menageries  also  know  very  well  that 
their  "  pupils  "  are  not  all  alike  in  character  and 
mental  aptitude.  This  observation  applies  to  the 
whole  animal  tribe,  and  its  truth  is  nowhere  better 
attested  than  in  the  case  of  monkeys,  especially 
as  regards  attentiveness,  good  memory,  and  willing- 
ness to  learn. 

Of  two  monkeys  belonging  to  the  same  species, 
one  will  be  so  feather-headed,  so  easily  distracted 
by  a  buzzing  fly  or  the  opening  and  shutting  of  a 
door,  that  he  can  never  be  taught  anything; 
whereas  the  other  will  not  take  his  eyes  off  the 
instructor  during  his  lesson,  and  by  dint  of  appli- 
cation will  quickly  understand  what  he  is  expected 
to  do,  and  will  soon  become  a  real  artist  in  his 
own  line. 

We  have  already  pointed  out  the  effect  of  these 
differences  in  character  when  it  is  a  question  of 
obtaining  food,  but  this  mental  divergence  between 
individuals  of  the  same  species  is  of  all-round 
importance.  Indeed,  wherever  rivalry  and  com- 
petition exist,  no  matter  what  form  they  assume, 
mental  and  moral  qualities  constitute  a  powerful 
factor  in  the  attainment  of  victory. 

This  truth  is  very  clearly  manifested,  for  example, 
in  the  behaviour  of  a  great  many  different  kinds 
of  animals  during  the  mating  season. 

When  the  males  keep  a  harem,  they  are  obliged 
to  fight  one  another  for  the  possession  of  the 
females  ;  and,  generally  speaking,  the  conqueror 
will  be  the  one  who  can  supplement  his  physical 
strength  by  powers  of  attention  and  observation, 
perseverance,  courage,  skill,  patience,  etc.  These 
qualities  will  enable  him  to  see  the  tactical  errors 
of  his  opponents  and  to  profit  by  them. 


56  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

In  the  case  of  animals  living  in  pairs,  the 
result  is  the  same  and  reached  in  the  same  way. 
For  here  again,  out  of  those  that  are  strong  it  is 
the  bravest,  the  most  skilful,  the  most  intelligent, 
and  the  one  who  best  knows  how  to  avail 
himself  of  circumstances,  that  will  triumph  over 
the  rest. 

Sometimes,  instead  of  clearing  rivals  out  of  the 
way  by  brute  force,  as  is  generally  the  custom 
with  mammalia,  the  object  is  to  excite  the  emotions 
of  the  female.  Amongst  many  species  of  mono- 
gamous birds  and  certain  other  animals,  the  females 
waver  for  a  long  time  in  their  choice,  reject  the 
advances  of  the  male,  and  even  flee  from  his  ap- 
proach. The  suitors  are  thus  obliged  to  go  through 
a  regular  process  of  wooing.  Sometimes  it  is  merely 
a  question  of  pursuit,  in  which  case  the  lover  has 
only  to  give  proof  of  his  perseverance.  But  often  he 
has  to  go  through  all  sorts  of  leaping,  dancing,  and 
other  evolutions  of  a  more  or  less  acrobatic  nature 
(jacanas,  cranes,  manakins  of  South  America, 
Paradisea  minori,  grouse,  etc.). 

Among  those  males  that  show  the  most  perse- 
verance, it  is  the  one  who  is  clever  enough  to  display 
his  beauty  and  skill  to  the  best  advantage  that  will 
succeed  in  touching  his  lady-love's  heart. 

In  other  cases,  the  male  bird  endeavours  to 
surpass  his  rivals  in  song ;  and  the  favoured  lover, 
one  of  those  who  show  most  perseverance,  will  be 
he  whose  intelligence  prompts  him  to  throw  the 
most  passionate  feeling  into  his  notes. 

Or  again,  the  males  have  to  show  themselves 
possessed  not  only  of  perseverance  but  also  of  an 
uncommon  faculty  of  endurance.  Such  are  the 
qualifications  demanded  by  the  young  queen  bee 
when  on  a  bright  and  sunny  day  she  accomplishes 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       57 

her  nuptial  flight.  No  sooner  has  she  left  the  hive 
than  her  wings  bear  her  straight  upwards,  higher 
and  ever  higher  through  the  air.  Immediately  all 
the  drones  from  the  neighbouring  hives,  of  whom 
there  are  considerable  numbers,  and  who  have  been 
waiting  for  this  moment,  fly  after  her.  But  mean- 
while the  youthful  queen  continues  to  "  scale  the 
heights  of  heaven,"  and  in  the  course  of  this  swift 
and  exhausting  upward  flight  those  who  are  inferior 
in  strength  or  ardour,  in  energy  or  perseverance, 
give  up  the  pursuit  one  by  one.  At  last  only 
those  remain  who  are  really  worthy  of  transmitting 
life.  And  it  is  only  then,  high  up  in  the  sky,  that 
the  queen  bee  makes  her  choice  among  those  who 
are  worthiest. 

It  also  happens  that,  when  the  proper  time  comes, 
the  male — among  birds  especially — is  arrayed  in  a 
special  dress,  more  splendid  than  his  ordinary 
attire.  The  better  his  health,  the  more  brilliant 
the  colours  in  which  he  is  decked  and  the  more 
likely  to  fascinate  his  future  mate.  (An  animal's 
state  of  health  is  always  indicated  by  the  appearance 
of  his  coat  or  of  his  plumage.)  Now  the  male  that 
is  in  the  best  condition  is  precisely  the  one  whose 
intelligence,  activity,  watchfulness,  power  of  obser- 
vation, and  perseverance  have  enabled  him  to  pro- 
vide himself  most  regularly  with  the  most  plentiful 
supply  of  food.  These  qualities,  by  keeping  him 
in  good  condition,  will  not  only  result  in  his  being 
adorned  with  livelier  tints,  but  will  also  allow  him 
to  utilise  them  to  the  full  and  display  them  to  the 
best  advantage  before  the  eyes  of  the  hen-bird 
looking  on.  In  a  word,  these  qualities  enable  him 
to  urge  his  suit  intelligently  and  for  a  protracted 
period  (golden  pheasant,  peacock,  Chinese  peacock 
pheasant,  bullfinch,  goldfinch,  Australian  pigeon. 


58  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

great  bustard,  crested  wren,  frigate-bird,  bird  of 
paradise,  ruff  or  Machetes  pugnax,  etc.). 

When  we  say  that  the  hen-birds  choose  their 
mates,  we  do  not  mean  to  assert  that  their  choice 
is  made  consciously,  or  that  they  say  to  themselves, 
for  example  :  "  So-and-so  shall  be  my  mate  because 
he  danced  longer  than  the  rest,  or  because  he  sings 
with  a  more  liquid  note  or  has  the  brightest-coloured 
feathers  round  his  neck."  All  we  wish  to  convey 
is  that  the  female  is  unquestionably  affected  by 
dancing,  song,  and  colour,  and  that  she  will  more 
readily  accept  as  partner  the  bird  that  has  stirred 
her  feelings  most  deeply.  We  have  here  a  choice 
which,  though  instinctive  and  unconscious,  is  never- 
theless real. 

It  must  be  said,  however,  that  in  the  opinion 
of  certain  ornithologists  the  hens  exercise  no  choice 
at  all,  unconscious  or  otherwise,  but  are  fated,  so  to 
speak,  to  belong  to  the  cock-birds  that  are  capable 
of  singing,  dancing,  or  strutting  about  longest ;  the 
others  having  withdrawn  from  the  contest  because 
they  were  lacking  in  perseverance,  energy,  or 
amorous  passion.  These  scientists  also  declare 
that  the  gaudy  colours  do  not  excite  the  female, 
but  only  attract  her  attention,  keep  her  interested, 
as  it  were,  and  prevent  her  quitting  the  society 
of  the  most  richly  endowed  male.  But  even  if  we 
accept  this  theory  of  the  female's  indifference  as 
to  which  of  her  suitors  is  the  handsomest,  the  most 
vigorous,  or  the  best  songster  (though  it  is  con- 
tradicted by  a  large  number  of  well-attested  facts), 
it  still  remains  true  that  the  males  of  inferior 
strength,  energy,  perseverance,  and  ardour  eliminate 
themselves  by  giving  up  the  struggle,  and  thus 
make  way  for  the  more  worthy — that  is  to  say, 
those  who  possess  in  the  highest  degree  the  qualities 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       59 

which  are  of  value  for  the  individual  and  for  the 
race. 

Whichever  theory  we  adopt,  it  is  highly  probable 
that  a  male  with  too  little  intelligence  to  be  able 
to  procure  enough  food  for  himself  in  time  of  dearth, 
or  to  come  off  victorious  in  battles  with  his  rivals, 
or  to  make  his  attractions  felt  by  the  female,  or  to 
touch  her  by  his  perseverance,  would  be  **  the  last 
of  his  race." 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  said  in  a  general 
way  that,  among  birds  as  well  as  other  animals,  the 
females  naturally  fall  to  those  males  who,  besides 
being  among  the  foremost  in  strength,  have  the 
best  mental  and  moral  equipment.  And  these 
qualities — energy,  muscular  strength,  organic  sound- 
ness, courage,  skill,  patience,  intelligence,  power  of 
attention,  judgment,  endurance,  perseverance,  etc. — 
are  transmitted  to  their  descendants. 

The  inevitable  sequence  of  natural  phenomena  tends, 
therefore,  to  produce  a  brain  possessing  the  qualities 
we  have  just  enumerated,  and  served  by  muscles  and 
organs  well  fitted  to  fulfil  their  proper  functions. 


To  return  to  man  :  we  see  that  his  psychical 
progress  has  been  continuous.  Between  primitive 
man  and  man  of  the  present  day  there  is  truly 
not  much  resemblance. 

In  speaking  of  the  Fuegians,  Darwin  tells  us  that 
when  he  first  saw  them  on  their  desolate  shores, 
he  got  a  very  clear  idea  of  what  the  savagery  of  our 
ancestors  was  like.  The  Fuegians  were  completely 
naked  and  besmeared  with  coloured  pigments. 
Their  hair  was  long  and  matted  together.  Their 
excitement  at  the  sight  of  strangers  was  so  great 
that  they  foamed  at  the  mouth.     Their  repulsive 


6o  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

features  expressed  the  emotions  of  surprise,  terror, 
and  anger.  These  people  had  no  form  of  govern- 
ment. They  lived  like  wild  beasts ;  that  is  to  say, 
they  lived  on  what  they  could  "  catch."  They 
killed  without  pity  all  those  that  were  not  members 
of  their  own  small  tribe.  Such  was  the  state  of  the 
Fuegians  at  the  time  that  Darwin  saw  them,  and 
such  was  also  the  state  of  our  first  ancestors,  thou- 
sands of  years  ago.  Man  has  progressed  since  those 
far-off  days.     No  one  can  deny  it. 

What  conclusion  are  we  to  draw  from  this 
continual  upward  movement,  starting  from  the 
protozoa  and  terminating  in  mankind,  from  this 
steady  progress,  both  physical  and  mental,  which 
living  beings  have  apparently  been  unable  to  resist, 
and  which  has  been  made  in  spite  of  them,  as  it 
were,  or  at  least  independently  of  their  own  will  ? 
At  what  conclusion  must  we  arrive  when  we  notice 
that  in  general,  as  each  new  series  of  beings  comes 
upon  the  scene,  the  domain  of  its  activity  and 
intelligence  is  also  enlarged,  that  every  series  is 
more  capable  of  higher  and  more  numerous  activi- 
ties than  the  preceding  one  ? 

The  conclusion  seems  evident.  All  the  past,  from 
the  period  when  our  planetary  system  was  only 
a  nebula  up  to  the  present  time,  indicates  clearly 
that  Nature,  through  the  working  of  her  inevitable 
Laws,  not  only  strives  to  put  forth  as  much  life  as 
possible,  but  always  tends  to  endow  that  life  as 
richly  as  possible  with  intelligence. 


Although  we  are  only  speaking  of  what  takes 
place  on  our  own  globe,  it  is  probable  that  Nature 
acts  according  to  the  same  principles — or,  which 
comes   to    the  same   thing,   that    the  unalterable 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       6i 

sequence  of  phenomena  brings  about  identical  results 
— on  the  planets  of  other  solar  or  stellar  systems. 
Life  in  that  case  would  be  universal  and  every- 
where intelligent. 

Furthermore,  it  may  be  that  life  and  intelligence 
have  attained  a  much  higher  state  of  development 
under  the  influence  of  suns  more  active  than  our 
own,  and  that,  compared  with  what  exists  on 
planets  which  are  bathed  in  the  vivifying  light  of 
double  or  triple  systems  of  suns,  such  as  are 
scattered  throughout  the  immensities  of  space,  our 
terrestrial  evolution  and  progress  are  only  of  the 
nature  of  a  humble  and  tentative  sketch. 

*  *  * 

It  is  clear  even  to.  the  superficial  observer  that 
every  living  being,  be  it  plant,  animal,  or  man,  is 
obliged  to  conform  to  certain  elementary  rules  of 
conduct  under  pain  of  extinction  ;  this  is  certainly 
true  of  the  race  if  not  of  the  individual.  The 
elements  of  morality,  then,  are  of  very  ancient 
standing.  A  general  demonstration  of  this  truth 
has  already  been  put  forth  in  the  preceding  pages  ; 
we  shall  now  enter  more  into  detail. 

*  *  * 

First  let  us  examine  briefly  the  morality  of  the 
plant. 

In  order  to  have  vigorous  offspring — that  is  to 
say,  in  order  to  give  to  future  generations  the  power 
of  living  a  normal  life — we  find  the  flower  in  many 
cases  refusing  to  fertilise  itself,  from  a  purely 
altruistic  motive.  The  means  used  to  secure  the 
diffusion  of  pollen  to  other  flowers  is  frequently 
a  costly  process  (production  of  perfumes,  gay 
colours,  sweet  juice,  etc.,  to  attract  insects). 
Afterwards  the  flower  has  to  provide  for  the  future 


62  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

of  its  children  by  enclosing  along  with  the  germ 
a  store  of  nourishment  large  enough  to  last  until 
the  young  plant  has  developed  its  own  roots  and 
leaves,  and  is  able  to  fend  for  itself.  The  whole 
is  carefully  wrapped  in  an  outer  casing  of  sufficient 
strength  to  ensure  the  contents  against  any  ordinary 
accident.  Finally,  the  mother  must  give  the 
seeds  the  power  of  dispersing  themselves,  so  as  to 
fall  on  a  soil  favourable  to  their  germination. 
Thus  the  plant  approves  itself  an  intelligent  and 
devoted  mother,  and  literally  does  all  in  its  power 
to  secure  the  existence  of  the  children,  even  though 
its  own  life  succumbs  to  the  effort.  This  is  the 
first  example  of  maternal  morality  that  Nature  pre- 
sents to  us. 

Some  of  our  readers  may  find  fault  with  us  for 
speaking  of  animals  and  plants  in  terms  that  are 
usually  applied  only  to  human  beings.  To  such 
we  would  reply,  in  the  words  of  Le  Dantec,  that 
the  idea  of  intelligence  is  for  us  inseparable  from 
the  idea  of  life.  And  we  may  add  that  the  idea  of 
morality — that  is  to  say,  conduct — is  up  to  a  certain 
point  inseparable  from  the  idea  of  intelligence. 


Let  us  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  insects, 
mammalia,  birds,  and  fishes. 

Many  insects  present  an  example  of  maternal 
care  and  foresight  which  is  all  the  more  remarkable 
because  the  mother  is  destined  never  to  see  her 
children  ;  and  yet,  in  spite  of  this  fact,  her  moral 
sense  impels  her  to  surround  them  with  every- 
thing necessary  to  their  comfort. 

The  simplest  case  is  that  of  the  majority  of 
butterflies,  which,  in  order  that  their  progeny 
may  be  hatched  under  favourable  conditions,  lay 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY        63 

their  eggs  on  plants  having  leaves  of  a  kind  most 
suitable  for  the  young  grubs  to  feed  upon.  Thus 
the  mother's  choice  will  fall  upon  the  cabbage  or 
the  cress,  the  rape,  the  poppy,  the  poplar  leaf,  and  so 
on,  according  to  the  particular  species  of  butterfly. 

The  mason-bee  takes  a  great  deal  more  trouble. 
With  ardent  zeal,  inspired  perhaps  by  love,  she 
builds  a  certain  number  of  cells  side  by  side,  lined 
with  a  sort  of  stone  casing,  so  as  to  protect  the 
nursery  against  cold  and  rain  and  enemies  from 
without.  For  the  construction  of  these  cells  and 
this  casing,  the  mason-bee  uses  small  grains  of 
sand,  selected,  of  course,  one  by  one,  and  these 
miniature  blocks  she  cements  by  means  of  earth 
moistened  with  her  saliva.  The  interior  of  the 
dwelling,  which  has  to  be  quite  smooth  so  as  not  to 
injure  the  very  tender  skin  of  the  larvae,  is  covered 
with  a  layer  of  fine  earth  rendered  adhesive  by 
saliva.  It  goes  without  saying  that  this  good 
and  far-sighted  mother  deposits  a  store  of  honey 
in  each  cell  to  serve  as  food  for  the  infants. 

The  leaf-cutting  bee  follows  a  different  plan. 
Having  chosen  a  natural  hollow  in  the  ground, 
she  constructs  a  number  of  thimble-shaped  recep- 
tacles out  of  leaves  taken  from  lilacs  or  rose-bushes, 
which  she  cuts  into  small  pieces.  These  receptacles 
are  destined  to  contain  one  t^g  each,  together 
with  some  honey-paste.  Bits  of  leaf  cut  to  a 
circular  shape  are  made  to  serve  as  lids.  A  series  of 
these  nests  are  thus  fashioned  and  duly  provisioned 
by  the  mother,  who  then  covers  up  her  handiwork 
with  a  heap  of  dry  leaves,  Fabre  has  counted  in  a 
single  nest  as  many  as  1064  separate  pieces  of  leaf, 
all  cut  up  by  this  devoted  mother  in  order  that 
they  might  serve  the  purpose  she  had  in  view. 

This  work,  like  that  of  the  mason-bee,  represents 


64  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

a  long  and  laborious  series  of  efforts  for  a  creature 

so  tiny  and  so  short-lived.     A  long  and  exhausting 

task   of   this   nature,    performed   for    the    benefit 

of  infants  yet  unborn,  points  to  a  highly  developed 

moral    sense    on    the    part    of    the    mother.     Her 

oft-repeated  exertions  also  manifest  the  important 

quality  of  perseverance  ;    for  during  these  painful 

labours  to  ensure  the  well-being  of  her  children, 

which  she  is  determined  to  carry  through  at  all 

costs  before  dying  of  exhaustion,  she  never  allows 

herself  to  be  discouraged  by  any  check  or  obstacle 

that  may  arise. 

*  *  * 

We  will  digress  at  this  point  in  order  to  observe 
that  perseverance,  or  continuity  of  effort,  appears 
to  be  one  of  the  qualities  which  are  of  most  value 
both  to  the  individual  and  to  the  race. 

If,  starting  from  the  top,  we  go  down  the  whole 
scale  of  the  animal  kingdom,  we  shall  find  that, 
although  intelligence  steadily  decreases,  persistency 
of  effort  remains  equally  strong  throughout.  That 
fact  certainly  seems  to  prove  the  capital  import- 
ance of  this  quality  for  the  continuous  propagation 
of  life. 

The  will  to  live  and  to  develop  is  present  in  the 
tiniest  insect  as  fully  as  in  man,  and  admirable  per- 
severance is  shown  in  the  pursuit  of  this  goal. 

The  same  observation  applies  to  plants.  Their 
roots  are  most  energetic  in  the  search  for  nourish- 
ment, which  is  often  a  lengthy  business  ;  and  the 
leaves  and  stalks  never  relax  their  efforts  to  obtain 
the  light  which  is  essential  to  their  growth.  Climb- 
ing plants  make  unremitting  attempts  to  find 
something  to  hold  on  to. 

The  object  of  this  continuity  of  effort  as  seen 
in  animals  and  plants  is  not  only  to  continue  to 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       65 

exist  as  individuals,  but  also,  as  we  have  said, 
to  ensure  the  life  of  their  progeny.  That  has  been 
shown  by  the  examples  of  the  mason-bee  and  the 
leaf-cutting  bee.  We  shall  find  numerous  other 
instances  in  the  following  pages.  In  the  meantime, 
let  us  cite  two  interesting  cases :  that  of  the  cray- 
fish, which  for  greater  safety  keeps  its  eggs  under 
its  body  for  about  six  months  and  a  half,  cleaning 
them  and  moving  them  about  at  frequent  intervals, 
in  order  that  they  may  be  provided  with  the  neces- 
sary oxygen  ;  and  that  of  the  female  kangaroo, 
which,  in  spite  of  the  fatigue,  carries  her  young 
for  about  eight  months  in  her  pouch,  where  the 
udders  full  of  milk  are  situated.  In  truth,  the 
more  we  study  Nature  the  better  we  shall  under- 
stand the  importance  of  sustained  effort. 


All  mammals  lavish  long  and  affectionate  care 
on  their  offspring.  As  soon  as  the  young  are 
born,  the  father  and  mother  have  no  thought 
except  for  their  welfare.  The  lioness,  the  tigress, 
and  the  she-wolf  stay  at  home  to  attend  to  the 
wants  of  the  "  babies,"  whilst  the  father  goes  out 
hunting,  and,  before  satisfying  his  own  hunger, 
brings  his  prey  home  to  feed  the  mother  and  her 
family.  But  the  care  of  the  parents  does  not  stop 
there.  They  also  teach  their  children  how  to 
hunt  game.  This  teaching,  this  care  and  protec- 
tion, only  cease  when  the  young  can  provide  for 
their  own  needs. 

Birds  do  as  much,  perhaps  even  more,  because 
the  parents  have  first  to  build  a  nest.  This  is  a 
long  and  laborious  job.  The  materials  used  for  a 
nest  vary  according  to  species  and  also  according 
to  circumstances  ;    they  comprise  moss,  blades  of 

5 


66  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

grass  either  withered  or  still  green,  small  roots, 
feathers,  hairs,  wool,  twigs,  down  taken  from 
various  plants,  and  always  some  soft  substance  to 
serve  as  lining  and  make  the  nestlings  comfortable. 
What  an  amount  of  searching,  what  a  number  of 
journeys,  how  much  time  and  hard  work  must  go 
to  the  building  of  a  bird's  nest !  ^ 

When  the  eggs  are  laid,  the  mother,  sacrificing 
her  love  of  liberty  and  movement,  forces  herself 
to  remain  for  long  monotonous  days  crouching 
on  the  nest  with  outstretched  wings,  an  extremely 
fatiguing  position.  Her  only  pleasure  then  is  to 
listen  to  the  song  with  which  her  mate  seeks  to 
beguile  her  weariness.  But  as  soon  as  the  little 
ones  are  hatched,  singing  is  out  of  the  question. 
Much  quick  flying  to  and  fro  has  to  be  done,  for 
many  beaks  are  hungrily  gaping  for  food,  and  the 
father  untiringly  brings  home  the  most  succulent 
morsels  he  can  find  for  his  mate  and  the  fledglings, 
only  thinking  of  himself  when  the  whole  family 
is  satisfied.  A  wren  has  been  seen  returning  to  its 
nest  about  every  three  minutes  with  food  in  its  beak, 
and  keeping  this  up  for  fourteen  hours  on  end. 

As  soon  as  the  mother-bird  can  leave  the  nest 
without  danger  accruing  to  her  brood,  she  bravely 
takes  her  share  in  the  work  to  be  done. 

A  pair  of  tomtits  with  a  large  family  were  seen 
hunting  for  food  for  sixteen  hours  without  resting, 
during  which  time  they  brought  back  no  fewer  than 
2000  caterpillars  or  grubs  :  a  marvellous  example 
of  love  and  perseverance  ! 

Be  it  also  noted  that  when  -the  nestlings  are  too 
young  to  digest  the  food  that  is  suitable  for  their 

1  Among  the  swallow  tribe,  for  example,  it  is  usual  for  the 
parent  birds  to  spend  eight  days  industriously  pecking  up  mud  or 
soft  earth  and  welding  it  with  their  saliva  into  a  glutinous  mass. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       67 

parents,  the  latter  often  make  choice  of  special 
articles  of  diet,  such  as  grubs  and  caterpillars 
(instead  of  seeds  or  grain),  which  they  will  some- 
times partially  digest  before  transferring  them 
to  the  beaks  of  their  offspring,  so  that  they  may 
be  more  easily  assimilated. 

It  is  in  this  way  that  the  majority  of  granivorous 
birds  (sparrows,  yellow-hammers,  greenfinches,  etc.) 
feed  their  young — first  of  all,  with  insects  that  they 
have  swallowed  and  that  are  half-digested,  then 
with  freshly  caught  insects,  and  finally  with  seeds. 

By  a  partial  process  of  digestion,  pigeons  con- 
vert the  grain  stored  in  their  crop  into  a  semi-liquid 
substance,  and  the  young  pigeon,  inserting  his 
beak  into  that  of  his  father  or  mother,  is  fed  with 
this  "  milk."  Later  on,  the  parents  prepare  a 
somewhat  thicker  kind  of  pap,  also  made  out  of 
grain.     Parrots  do  the  same  thing. 

When  at  last  they  are  strong  enough  to  leave 
the  nest,  the  young  birds  of  every  species  are  shown 
by  their  parents  how  to  use  their  wings — and  this, 
like  all  teaching,  requires  great  patience. 

When  a  female  redbreast,  for  instance,  wishes 
to  give  a  lesson  in  flying  to  her  young,  she  places 
herself  at  some  distance  from  the  nest  with  an 
appetising  caterpillar  in  her  beak.  At  once  the 
young  birds  begin  to  clamour  loudly  for  this 
dainty  morsel ;  but  as  their  mother  will  not  come 
any  nearer,  they  are  compelled  to  leave  the  nest 
and  to  flutter  towards  her  from  branch  to  branch. 
And  the  same  process  is  repeated  as  often  as  may  be 
necessary.  (Does  not  this  method  of  instruction 
remind  one  of  a  fond  mamma  teaching  her  baby 
how  to  walk  ?) 

Even  among  the  least  sociable  of  the  carnivora 
and  the  most  solitary  birds  of  prey  this  inborn 


68  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

parental  love  may  be  seen  at  all  times  in  active 
operation.  It  could  not  well  be  otherwise,  for 
without  this  unceasing  care  and  devotion  the  young 
would  run  the  risk  of  starving  to  death  or  succumb- 
ing to  the  perils  which  always  beset  the  weak,  and 
the  race  would  die  out.  Hence  it  is  that  parental 
love — especially  in  the  case  of  the  mother — is 
always  most  highly  developed  in  animals  whose 
young  stand  in  special  need  of  protection. 

Who  is  not  familiar  with  the  heroism  shown  by 
the  cat,  and  by  most  other  animals,  when  they  have 
to  fight  for  their  new-born  offspring  ? 

It  is  also  a  well-known  fact  that  monkeys  show 
intense  solicitude  for  their  young,  and  continue 
to  do  so  for  a  long  period.  The  male  defends 
his  family  with  extraordinary  courage,  and  the 
mother  never  abandons  the  baby  she  is  suckling, 
however  great  the  danger  that  threatens  her.  If 
wounded  by  the  hunter's  bullets,  she  still  has  the 
presence  of  mind  to  bestow  her  precious  burden 
on  the  branch  of  some  tree  before  dropping  down 
to  die. 

The  female  gibbon  has  a  passion  for  cleanliness 
which  is  not  always  appreciated  by  her  children. 
With  unfailing  regularity  she  carries  them  to  some 
neighbouring  stream  or  lake,  and  washes  their 
faces  in  spite  of  their  cries  and  protests.  These 
excellent  mothers  devote  much  time  and  care  to 
keeping  their  children  clean. 

Animals  which  are  not  strong  enough  to  protect 
their  young  by  physical  force  will  often  have 
recourse  to  stratagem.  When  a  sudden  danger 
threatens  the  nestlings  of  the  partridge,  the  thrush, 
the  grouse,  the  wild  duck,  the  warbler,  the  wagtail, 
and  others,  the  mother-bird  flies  away  close  to 
the  ground,  awkwardly  and  not  too  fast,  imitating 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       69 

to  the  life  the  flight  of  a  wounded  bird.  The 
prowhng  quadruped,  thinking  he  has  an  easy 
prey,  follows  her  up  with  his  mouth  watering ; 
but  as  soon  as  the  mother  judges  that  she  has 
put  a  safe  distance  between  the  enemy  and  her 
brood,  she  shoots  up  into  the  air  uttering  cries  of 
triumph. 

The  doe  that  fears  for  her  fawn  will  likewise 
lure  on  the  pursuer  by  running  slowly  at  first ; 
then  a  sudden  spurt  enables  her  to  return  by  a 
circuitous  route  to  the  place  where  she  has  left  her 
darling. 

Among  certain  species  of  fishes,  the  father  shows 
more  parental  love  than  the  mother.  Thus,  it  is 
the  male  stickleback  that  constructs  out  of  river- 
grass  the  nest  in  which  the  eggs  are  deposited  ; 
and  whereas  the  female  is  indifferent  to  the  fate  of 
her  offspring,  he  will  valiantly  dispute  the  passage 
and  attack  fishes  ten  times  bigger  than  himself. 
Like  an  intelligent  father,  he  moves  his  fins  in 
such  a  way  as  to  create  a  current  of  water  through 
the  nest  (which  has  two  openings),  thus  keeping 
it  supplied  with  the  necessary  amount  of  oxygen. 
When  the  young  sticklebacks  are  hatched  and 
run  thoughtlessly  into  danger  by  going  too  far 
from  the  nest,  their  father  takes  them  in  his  mouth 
by  sucking  in  the  water  and  brings  them  back 
again. 

Similar  neglect  of  the  eggs  is  shown  by  the  female 
hippocampus.  It  is  the  male  that  keeps  them 
safe  in  his  ventral  pouch  until  incubation  takes 
place. 

*  *  * 

It  is  among  birds  and  mammals,  then,  that  we 
find  the  first  example  of  family  morality.  In  the 
case  of  plants  and,  generally  speaking,  of  insects. 


70  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

the  young  ones  are  cared  for  only  by  the  mother  ; 
among  mammals,  birds,  etc.,  the  father  does  his 
duty  by  them  as  well.  Working  for  his  children 
and  for  his  mate,  he  acts,  in  all  simplicity,  on  truly 
altruistic  principles  in  that  he  thinks  of  others  besides 
himself. 

Thus  we  see  that  the  great  virtue  of  parental 
devotion  was  practised  long  before  man  appeared 
on  this  earth. 

It  should  be  added  that,  from  the  remotest 
ages,  heredity  has  ensured  the  survival  of  species 
by  transmitting  this  altruistic  instinct  of  the  parents 
to  their  posterity ;  and  the  certainty  of  such 
survival — other  things  being  equal — has  depended 
on  the  degree  in  which  this  parental  love,  with  the 
intelligence  implied  therein,  was  developed. 


Having  studied  the  subject  of  family  morality, 
if  we  go  on  to  examine  the  relations  existing  between 
the  members  of  societies  or  groups  formed  by  un- 
domesticated  animals,  we  shall  find  that  a  new 
bond  accompanies  the  emergence  of  new  duties. 

With  many  birds  and  mammals  the  morality 
only  lasts  as  long  as  the  family  keeps  together  ; 
as  soon  as  the  young  are  strong  enough,  the  family 
generally  disperses,  and  the  ethical  sense  remains 
in  abeyance  until  the  following  season.  With  gre- 
garious animals,  on  the  contrary,  the  family  duties 
are  no  longer  the  only  ones,  for  every  member  of 
the  herd  or  flock  has  also  duties  to  fulfil  towards 
all  the  other  members  :  duties  of  fair-dealing  (a 
tuft  of  grass  must  not  be  snatched  from  another 
because  it  happens  to  be  a  nicer  mouthful),  duties 
of  patience,  of  forbearance — in  these  communities 
quarrels    are  rare — and   also   of  obedience  to  the 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       71 

leader  who  governs  for  the  general  good.  But, 
above  all,  duties  of  mutual  help,  protection,  and 
union. 

Examples  are  so  numerous  that  it  is  not  easy 
to  make  a  selection.  Here  are  some,  however, 
taken  at  random. 

Monkeys  search  for  and  kill  each  other's  parasites, 
and,  when  they  have  passed  through  prickly  under- 
growth, each  will  oblige  his  neighbour  by  pulling 
the  thorns  out  of  his  coat  in  places  that  the  latter 
cannot  reach.  It  often  happens  that  blind  animals 
are  fed  by  their  companions.  Darwin  mentions  the 
case  of  crows  that  used  to  feed  two  or  three  of 
their  companions  which  were  deprived  of  sight ;  he 
also  tells  us  of  an  old  pelican  which,  though  stone- 
blind,  was  nevertheless  kept  fat  and  flourishing 
through  the  kind  attention  of  its  fellows. 

Kropotkin  furnishes  us  with  an  interesting 
example.     He  says,  in  his  book  on  Mutiial  Aid  : — 

"As  to  the  big  Molucca  crab  {Limulus),  I  was 
struck  (at  the  Brighton  Aquarium)  with  the  extent 
of  mutual  assistance  which  these  clumsy  animals 
are  capable  of  bestowing  upon  a  comrade  in  case 
of  need.  One  of  them  had  fallen  upon  its  back  in 
a  corner  of  the  tank,  and  its  heavy  saucepan-like 
carapace  prevented  it  from  returning  to  its  natural 
position,  the  more  so  as  there  was  in  the  corner  an 
iron  bar  which  rendered  the  task  still  more  difficult. 
Its  comrades  came  to  the  rescue,  and  for  one  hour's 
time  I  watched  how  they  endeavoured  to  help 
their  fellow-prisoner.  They  came  two  at  once, 
pushed  their  friend  from  beneath,  and  after 
strenuous  efforts  succeeded  in  lifting  it  upright  ; 
but  the  iron  bar  would  prevent  them  from  achieving 
the  work  of  rescue,  and  the  crab  would  again  fall 
upon  its  back.     After  many  attempts,  one  of  the 


72  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

helpers  would  go  in  the  depth  of  the  tank  and 
bring  two  other  crabs,  which  would  begin  with  fresh 
forces  the  same  pushing  and  lifting  of  their  helpless 
comrade.  We  stayed  in  the  Aquarium  for  more 
than  two  hours,  and  when  leaving  we  again  came 
to  cast  a  glance  upon  the  tank :  the  work  of  rescue 
still  continued  !  " 

Kropotkin  also  informs  us  that  pelicans  "  always 
go  fishing  in  numerous  bands,  and,  after  having 
chosen  an  appropriate  bay,  they  form  a  wide  half- 
circle  in  face  of  the  shore,  and  narrow  it  by  paddling 
towards  the  shore,  catching  all  fish  that  happen 
to  be  enclosed  in  the  circle.  On  narrow  rivers  and 
canals  they  even  divide  into  two  parties,  each  of 
which  draws  up  on  a  half-circle,  and  both  paddle 
to  meet  each  other ;  just  as  two  parties  of  men 
dragging  two  long  nets  should  advance  to  capture 
all  fish  taken  between  the  nets  when  both  parties 
come  to  meet.*' 

The  wolves  of  the  Russian  steppes  hunt  in  packs. 
By  means  of  joint  action  they  succeed,  where  each 
one  acting  separately  would  fail. 

Everyone  knows  how  beavers  co-operate  in 
building  dams,  some  of  which  are  intended  to  keep 
the  water  at  a  more  or  less  constant  level,  while 
others  serve  to  break  the  force  of  the  current. 
They  also  dig  canals  in  common,  by  means  of  which 
the  timber  that  they  have  felled  on  either  side  is 
floated  downstream. 

The  following  touching  practice  is  found  among 
ants.  When  one  of  them  lights  upon  something 
to  eat,  it  first  of  all  consumes  what  it  needs,  and 
then  fills  its  crop  with  food  to  be  disgorged  later 
on  for  the  benefit  of  the  larvae  in  the  ant-hill,  or 
of  any  adult  ants  it  may  encounter  on  its  way  that 
have  not  had  time  or  opportunity  to  satisfy  their 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY        73 

hunger.     A  good  instance,  this,  of  practical  charity, 

or,  more  strictly  speaking,  of  reciprocity,  for  the 

giver  of  to-day  will  perhaps  be  the  recipient  of 

to-morrow. 

4:  «  « 

Should  it  be  a  question  of  defence,  the  duty  of 
protecting  the  community  will  fall  upon  the 
strongest  of  the  males. 

For  this  reason,  whenever  a  herd  of  bison  is 
threatened  by  some  danger,  the  females  and  their 
young  take  up  their  position  in  the  centre,  while  the 
males  form  a  circle  round  them  so  as  to  ward  off 
the  enemy. 

A  somewhat  different  plan  is  adopted  by  vicugnas 
(a  kind  of  llama).  When  they  are  closely 
pursued,  the  bravest  of  the  males  remain  behind 
in  order  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  females  with 
their  young  and  allow  them  to  escape. 

Brehm  tells  us  that  one  day,  when  hunting  in 
a  virgin  forest,  he  suddenly  heard  a  tremendous 
flapping  of  wings  followed  by  piercing  screams. 
An  eagle  had  pounced  upon  a  young  monkey  and 
was  trying  to  carry  it  off,  while  the  victim,  tightly 
clasping  a  branch  with  all  his  four  limbs,  was 
desperately  calling  for  help.  Immediately  the 
whole  troop  of  monkeys  (Cercopithecae)  flew  to  the 
rescue,  and  a  dozen  of  the  biggest  threw  themselves 
upon  the  eagle.  Seized,  scratched,  and  bitten 
on  every  side,  the  would-be  ravisher's  only  anxiety 
now  was  to  get  out  of  an  awkward  scrape.  He 
finally  dropped  his  prey  and  flew  off,  but  not 
without  leaving  a  considerable  quantity  of  feathers 
behind  him. 

Whenever  animals  forming  part  of  the  same 
herd  or  group,  and  therefore  known  to  one  another, 
find  themselves  confronted  with  some  danger  of 


^ 


74  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

an  unfamiliar  sort,  it  is  noteworthy  that  the 
initiative  is  always  left  to  one  of  the  older  males, 
presumably  the  one  who  combines  physical  strength 
with  the  greatest  amount  of  practical  intelligence, 
derived  from  experience.  In  this  connection,  an 
incident  which  was  recorded  by  Brehm  (and  after- 
wards quoted  by  Darwin)  can  hardly  be  recalled 
without  emotion. 

In  Abyssinia  this  learned  ornithologist  en- 
countered a  large  troop  of  baboons  which  were 
crossing  a  valley.  Some  had  already  reached  the 
opposite  mountain,  whilst  the  others  were  still  in 
the  plain.  But  the  old  males  came  down  again  in 
great  haste  when  they  saw  the  laggards  attacked 
by  the  dogs  belonging  to  the  party,  and  assumed  so 
threatening  an  air  and  uttered  such  loud  cries  that 
the  enemy  drew  back.  However,  the  dogs  were 
set  on  them  again  just  as  all  the  baboons  had  gained 
shelter  in  the  mountain,  save  a  young  one  about  six 
months  old,  who,  having  remained  behind  perched 
on  a  rock,  was  soon  surrounded  by  the  pack.  Then, 
seeing  the  danger  to  which  the  "  baby "  was 
exposed,  one  of  the  most  powerful  males  redescended 
the  mountain  alone,  slowly  made  his  way  back  to 
the  little  one,  fondled  it,  and  bore  it  away  in 
triumph.  Happily,  the  dogs  were  so  surprised 
that  they  allowed  the  hero  and  his  precious  burden 
to  depart  in  peace. 

The  mutual  service,  however,  most  commonly 
rendered  by  gregarious  animals  is  to  give  their 
comrades  warning  of  danger.  Rabbits  stamp  on 
the  ground  with  their  hind  feet,  and  chamois  do 
the  same  with  their  fore  feet. 

Sentinels  are  posted  by  many  birds  and  also  by 
a  few  species  of  mammals.  We  may  instance  wild 
ducks  and  geese,  cranes,  parrots,  flamingoes,  sea- 


STATEMENT  OF  THE  THEORY       75 

gulls,  bustards,  rooks  and  crows,  storks,  prairie-dogs 
and  prairie-hens,  zebras,  wild  horses,  beavers, 
otters,  and  walruses.  With  monkeys  the  duty  of 
keeping  guard  is  entrusted  to  the  head  of  the  troop, 
who  utters  loud  cries  when  he  wants  to  warn  his 
"  tribe  "  of  impending  danger. 

This  practice  of  posting  sentinels,  as  E.  P.  Evans 
very  justly  points  out,  not  only  implies  a  high  degree 
of  foresight  and  intelligence,  but  is  also  a  proof  of 
remarkable  moral  qualities.  For  sentinels  must 
keep  watch  while  the  others  are  resting  or  feeding, 
and  that  alone  requires  an  uncommon  effort  of  will ; 
but  an  even  higher  degree  of  morality  appears  in 
the  fact  that  they  are  prepared  to  sacrifice  their 
lives  to  ensure  the  safety  of  their  comrades. 

It  is  only  fair  to  add  that  these  sentinels  do  not 
always  act  voluntarily,  being  often  selected  by  their 
companions.  Yet  it  is  none  the  less  true  that, 
once  appointed,  they  accept  the  responsibilities  of 
their  office  and  realise  the  duty  of  the  individual 
towards  the  community  to  which  he  belongs. 

With  gregarious  animals  the  necessity  for  re- 
ciprocal service,  aid,  and  protection  being  always 
paramount,  ethical  sentiment  is  always  kept  alive  : 
morality  therefore  has  made  a  great  stride.  It  is 
the  first  example  of  tribal  morality. 

Long  before  the  appearance  of  man,  many  birds 
and  quadrupeds,  including  monkeys,  had  joined 
together  in  tribes  or  clans,  partly  through  natural 
affection,  and  partly  for  the  sake  of  mutual  pro- 
tection. The  social  instinct  which  made  such 
co-operation  and  mutual  assistance  possible  was 
one  of  the  most  important  steps  taken  on  the  long 
path  of  evolution. 

Finally,  certain  insects,  such  as  ants  and  bees, 
set  up  fixed  dwelling-places,  carefully  ordered  and 


76  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

provided  with  all  the  comfort  and  convenience 
necessary  for  regular  work.  In  these  communities, 
which  were  no  longer  nomadic,  the  work,  being 
considerably  heavier,  had  to  undergo  specialisa- 
tion. To  such  an  extent  is  this  carried  out  that 
when  bees,  for  instance,  have  to  perform  some 
definite  task  they  attend  to  no  other,  however 
great  the  temptation  may  be.  Thus,  those  that 
are  entrusted  with  the  task  of  providing  water 
will  not  allow  themselves  to  be  allured  by  any 
sweet  liquid  ;  and  vice  versa,  those  whose  duty  it 
is  to  extract  nectar  from  the  flowers  will  not  touch 
the  water  that  may  be  offered  to  them,  even  in 
a  time  of  drought,  when  water  is  urgently  required 
for  the  larvae  in  the  hive.  Bees  understand  that 
in  order  to  do  the  work  demanded  by  the  hive 
quickly  and  well,  it  is  necessary  that  each  should 
occupy  itself  exclusively  and  conscientiously  with 
the  particular  job  that  has  been  assigned  to  it, 
and  not  act  according  to  the  impulse  of  the  moment 
or  be  diverted  by  chance  encounters.  Each  bee 
has  its  own  programme,  and  neither  shirks  nor 
modifies  it.  Each  individual  cares  only  for  the 
general  good,  and  without  complaining  accepts  the 
allotted  task,  cost  what  it  may.  (In  summer, 
during  the  full  working  season,  the  working  bees 
die  in  six  weeks,  exhausted  by  their  formidable 
labours.) 

Another  equally  striking  example  of  the  sacrifice 
of  the  individual,  when  occasion  arises,  in  the  in- 
terests of  the  community,  is  presented  by  bees. 

If  a  queen  and  some  of  the  working  bees  are 
taken  from  the  hive  and  placed  in  a  receptacle 
together,  with  a  little  honey  beside  them,  it  will  be 
found  that  the  workers  feed  the  queen  first,  and 
only  after  having  performed  this  duty  will  they 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       yj 

take  a  little  nourishment  themselves.  But  by  and 
by,  as  the  store  of  honey  diminishes,  the  workers 
will  cease  to  eat  at  all,  and  will  reserve  the  few 
remaining  drops  for  the  queen.  One  after  another 
they  will  allow  themselves  to  die  of  starvation,  until 
the  last  worker  of  all,  the  one  which  has  been  able 
to  endure  this  privation  the  longest,  gives  a  final 
drop  of  honey  to  the  queen  with  her  customary 
care,  and  in  her  turn  drops  down  dead  from  ex- 
haustion. All  these  sacrifices  are  made  in  order 
to  prolong  and,  if  possible,  to  save  the  life  of  the 
queen,  since  it  is  on  her  that  the  future  of  the 
whole  community  depends. 

In  another  connection,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the 
most  important  principles  of  **  public  hyg^iene " 
are  observed  by  bees  in.  their  hive,  and,  iii  this  case 
also,  for  the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number. 
Thus,  the  workers  are  always  most  careful  to  deposit 
their  excreta  outside  the  hive.  But  the  queen  bee 
never  goes  out,  and  the  drones,  unfortunately,  are 
very  dirty  in  their  habits.  A  certain  number  of 
sexless  bees  are  therefore  told  off  to  keep  the  shelves, 
walls,  and  floor  free  from  ordure,  all  of  which  is 
conveyed  by  them  outside  the  hive. 

If  a  bee  happens  to  die,  or  if  one  of  the  larvae 
succumbs  within  the  common  dwelling-place,  its 
corpse  is  immediately  carried  away  to  a  certain 
distance. 

Should  there  penetrate  into  the  hive  some  animal 
of  too  great  a  bulk  to  be  removed,  without  delay 
its  body  is  covered  with  a  layer  of  propolis,  which 
renders  its  decomposition  inofiensive. 

Lastly,  the  temperature  of  the  hive  being  always 
at  a  high  level,  and  the  atmosphere  being  liable 
after  a  time  to  become  unhealthy,  some  of  the 
sexless  bees  undertake  the  function  of  ventilators : 


78  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

facing  in  the  same  direction,  they  cause  their  wings 
to  vibrate  rapidly,  and  thus  produce  a  draught 
which  brings  in  fresh  air. 

Ants,  likewise,  are  sociable,  industrious,  and 
methodical,  and  bring  all  their  energy  and  in- 
telligence to  bear  on  the  well-being  of  the  com- 
munity. 

Their  eggs  require  much  greater  care  even  than 
those  of  the  bee,  not  only  because  they  take  a  much 
longer  time  to  hatch,  but  also  because  every  other 
moment  they  have  to  be  conveyed  from  one  part 
of  the  ant-hill  to  another,  according  to  the  degree 
of  heat,  moisture,  etc.,  that  prevails.  These 
constant  fiittings  demand  unceasing  vigilance  and 
much  hard  work  on  the  part  of  the  nurses. 

Bees  and  ants,  then,  exemplify  the  highest  de- 
veTSpm^nt  of  morality  which  animals  have  been 
able  to  reach :  the  ^oi^Uf'y  ^/  i{!',^,_pfl,i?.^^-.f 

They  are  muclT^s taken, '  tKereTore^  who  allege 
that  Nature  preaches  only  the  doctrine  of  egoism, 
of  "  each  one  for  himself,"  and  that  she  leaves  no 
room  for  mutual  aid  or  the  generous  promptings 
of  sympathy  and  benevolence. 

The  foregoing  pages  have  already  demonstrated 
the  falsity  of  such  an  assertion.  Nevertheless,  the 
error  is  one  of  such  tenacious  growth  that  we  shall 
beg  leave  to  enlarge  yet  further  on  the  subject, 
even  if  it  slightly  interrupts  our  account  of  moral 
development. 

On  every  page  of  the  history  of  Europe  we  read 
accounts  of  battles,  and  are  informed  of  the  number 
of  dead  bodies  left  on  the  field,  of  countries  invaded, 
of  territories  ravaged  with  fire  and  sword.  His- 
torians do  not  spare  us  the  description  of  a  single 
fight ;  they  delight  in  expatiating  on  civil  wars 
and  on  wars  of  conquest.     So   much  so,   that  a 


STATEMENT  OF  THE   THEORY       79 

denizen  of  Jupiter,  for  instance,  would  rise  from  a 
perusal  of  our  history  books  with  the  impression 
that  the  nations  of  Europe  had  always  been  fighting 
each  other  without  mercy  or  respite,  and  that  the 
inhabitants  of  this  planet  had  never  done  anything 
but  wade  through  rivers  of  blood. 

It  would  not  be  the  Jupitarian's  fault  if  he  held 
such  an  erroneous  opinion  concerning  us  ;  it  would 
be  the  fault  of  the  historians,  who,  while  relating 
tragical  events  in  great  detail,  have  passed  over  in 
silence  facts  of  far  greater  import  for  the  human 
race  :  the  institution  of  all  manner  of  philanthropic 
works,  the  foundation  in  every  country  of  societies 
for  the  advancement  of  science,  literature,  and  art, 
the  innumerable  inventions  and  discoveries  which 
have  so  largely  contributed  to  the  development  of 
human  life, — in  fact,  all  those  peaceful  activities, 
great  and  small,  which  have  gradually  transformed 
the  cave  man  into  man  as  we  see  him  at  the  present 
day.i 

We  must  needs  admit  that  inventions,  discoveries, 
and  philanthropic  institutions  have  done  infinitely 
more  to  "  mould  "  the  human  race  than  all  the 


^  The  following  inventions  may  be  mentioned  at  random : — the 
construction  of  huts ;  the  invention  of  wheels  and  weaving ;  the 
making  of  bricks  and  mortar ;  the  discovery  of  metals,  which  led 
in  time  to  the  manufacture  of  all  sorts  of  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial implements,  surgical  and  other  scientific  instruments ; 
the  invention  of  the  arch,  which  enabled  men  to  build  bridges 
and  aqueducts ;  the  making  of  roads  faciUtating  transport  and 
intercourse  not  only  in  the  interior  of  a  country  but  between  one 
country  and  another ;  the  invention  of  printing,  which  enables 
scientists,  philosophers,  and  men  of  letters  to  impart  their  thoughts 
to  all  mankind ;  postal  organisation ;  the  discovery  of  the  properties 
of  steam  and  electricity,  followed  by  the  invention  of  the  steam- 
engine,  locomotives,  railways,  and  telegraphy,  with  and  without 
wires ;  the  discovery  of  microbes  and  the  scientific  treatment  of 
infectious  diseases;  the  use  of  anaesthetics;  the  invention  of 
motor-cars,  aeroplanes,  etc.  etc. 


8o  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

battles  which  cumber  our  historical  records.  (What 
remains  now,  for  instance,  of  the  conquests  of 
Alexander,  Caesar,  or  Napoleon  ?)  The  reason  is 
that  wars,  though  formidable  enough  in  many  cases, 
have  been  intermittent,  whereas  the  effect  of  the 
smallest  discovery  or  invention  is  continually 
making  itself  felt. 

The  same  remark  applies  to  the  subject  with 
which  we  are  now  engaged.  We  watch  the  struggle 
for  existence,  and  are  hypnotised,  as  it  were,  by 
this  spectacle,  which,  like  the  battles  of  history, 
hides  from  us  a  factor  of  far  greater  importance  in 
the  development  of  the  human  race  and  of  hfe 
in  all  its  varied  forms  :  we  mean  the  factor  of 
co-operation,  union,  and  mutual  help. 

To  begin  with  plant  life,  we  see  here  unmistakable 
evidence  of  combination  to  secure  the  development 
of  the  whole. 

Roots,  trunk,  stalks,  leaves  and  flowers,  all  work 
together  in  harmony.  But  this  unity  of  purpose  is 
carried  a  step  further  in  the  family  of  Compositae, 
which  comprises  an  immense  number  of  species. 
The  best-known  representatives  of  these  are  the 
dahlia,  daisy,  aster,  anthemis,  chrysanthemum, 
sunflower,  arnica,  marigold,  thistle,  chicory,  lettuce, 
salsify,  scorzonera,  sow-thistle,  coltsfoot,  etc. 

The  flowers  of  these  plants  were  originally  dis- 
tributed all  along  the  stem,  but  owing  to  their 
small  dimensions  they  constantly  ran  the  risk  of 
being  overlooked  by  winged  insects.  What  did 
they  do  ?  Realising  the  fact  that  union  is  strength, 
they  grouped  themselves  together  at  the  highest 
point  so  as  to  form  one  large  flower  visible  from 
afar.  The  flowers  which  were  situated  on  the  outer 
ring  gave  up  their  stamens  to  be  converted  into 
brightly  coloured  petals,  so  that  their  friends  the 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       8i 

pollen-carriers  might  more  easily  be  attracted  to 
the  whole  group. 

In  truth,  union  and  co-operation  are  being  con- 
tinually manifested  in  every  living  object.  What 
is  the  human  body,  for  example,  but  a  huge  "  co- 
operative concern  "  in  which  each  member  works 
intelligently  and  untiringly  for  the  general  good  ? 
— brain,  heart,  lungs,  gastric,  pancreatic,  hepatic, 
thyroid,  salivary,  sebaceous,  and  sudoriferous  glands, 
suprarenal  capsules,  eyes,  ears,  tongue,  legs,  arms, 
hands,  muscles,  nerves,  serum  of  the  blood,  red 
corpuscles,  phagocytes,  and  skin. 

With  a  view  to  greater  efficiency,  each  separate 
part  of  the  body,  as  we  know,  has  undergone 
specialisation  ;  but  in  order  that  the  whole  machine 
may  work  smoothly,  or  rather,  in  order  that  it 
may  be  able  to  work  at  all,  constant  co-operation 
and  complete  harmony  are  essential,  so  that  each 
organ  shall  perform  only  such  acts  as  are  profitable 
to  the  whole  community.  And  again,  each  of  these 
organs  is  itself  made  up  of  various  parts,  more  or 
less  numerous,  but  all  united  in  the  furtherance  of 
a  single  purpose  :   the  life  of  the  whole. 

Sometimes  the  principle  of  co-operation  may  be 
pushed  as  far  as  actual  substitution  ;  that  is  to  say, 
the  place  of  a  dead  or  diseased  organ  may  be  taken 
by  a  healthy  one. 

Thus,  when  one  of  the  kidneys  is  injured  or 
destroyed,  the  other  will  increase  in  size  so  as  to  do 
the  work  of  its  fellow,  sometimes  even  becoming 
as  heavy  as  the  two  put  together. 

But  the  classical  instance  is  that  of  a  large  blood- 
vessel (vein  or  artery)  which  has  been  rendered 
useless  by  inflammation  ;  in  this  case  continuity 
of  function  is  assured  by  the  rapid  enlargement  of 
one  of  the  neighbouring  veins  or  arteries,   often 

6 


82  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

hardly  visible  at  first,  to  take  the  place  of  the  one 
affected. 

On  occasion,  too,  the  organs  of  the  body  will 
lighten  each  other's  tasks  during  a  period  of  stress. 
For  example,  when  the  heart  is  suddenly  over- 
taxed, the  blood-vessels  dilate  in  order  to  allow  the 
blood  to  circulate  more  freely,  and  in  this  way  the 
heart  is  relieved  of  some  of  the  work  thrown  upon 
it.  As  soon  as  the  strain  has  ceased,  the  blood- 
vessels resume  their  normal  dimensions. 

Passing  now  from  the  animal  body  to  the  animals 
themselves,  we  find  that  intelligent  and  unselfish 
co-operation  plays  a  most  important  part  in  the 
preservation  of  species.  We  will  content  ourselves 
with  recalling  what  has  been  said  with  regard  to 
bees,  ants,  monkeys,  rooks,  rabbits,  chamois,  wild 
ducks  and  geese,  flamingoes,  sea-gulls,  prairie  dogs, 
^  zebras,  wild  horses,  beavers,  otters,  walruses, 
I  pelicans,  crabs,  crows,  storks,  etc.     (See  also  Mutual 

^y  Aid,  by  Kropotkin.) 

^^  The  existence  of  co-operation  in  such  measure 
among  so  many  plants  and  animals  cannot  be  due 
to  chance.  To  us  it  appears  evident  that  co-opera- 
tion is  willed  by  Nature,  and  that  she  makes  con- 
stant use  of  it  for  the  development  of  life. 

Further,  it  cannot  be  denied  that  without  such 
united  action  and  mutual  help,  constantly  rendered, 
life  would  never  have  been  able  to  exist  in  other 
than  unicellular  beings.  For  directly  you  have  a 
living  thing  composed  of  more  than  one  cell  and 
differentiated  as  to  its  parts,  constant  co-operation 
between  all  its  cells  and  all  its  organs  becomes  the 
prime  necessity  of  its  existence.  Thus  we  see  that 
co-operation  is  of  infinitely  greater  importance  for 
the  development  of  life  than  competition. 

Through  association  with  others,  it  is  true,  the 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       83 

individual  forgoes  a  certain  amount  of  liberty,  but 
on  the  other  hand  its  power  of  living  and  its  well- 
being  are  much  increased.  Uniting  for  the  purpose 
of  mutual  aid  is  the  surest  means  of  guaranteeing 
the  safety  and  the  continued  existence  of  all. 

As  regards  kindliness  and  sympathy,  the  most 
typical  of  the  altruistic  virtues,  let  us  see  in  what 
esteem  they  are  held  by  Nature. 

Darwin  was  greatly  astonished  and  perplexed, 
at  the  outset,  by  the  phenomenon  of  the  sexless  or 
working  bee.  His  whole  theory,  indeed,  seemed  to 
be  shattered  by  the  existence  of  these  sterile 
members  of  the  community,  inasmuch  as  total 
sterility  was  an  attribute  that  could  in  no  wise  be 
transmitted  by  heredity.  How  then  was  it  possible, 
on  the  principle  of  natural  selection  and  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest,  to  account  for  the  presence  of 
so  many  of  these  bees  in  every  hive  for  thousands 
of  years  in  the  past  ? 

When  Darwin  saw  that,  on  the  principle  of  the 
division  of  labour,  these  sterile  females  devoting 
themselves  exclusively  to  their  work  constituted 
a  real  asset  for  the  hive,  he  was  placed  on  the  track 
of  the  important  discovery  that  the  law  of  selection 
applies  not  only  to  the  individual  but  also  to  the 
community ;  in  other  words,  that  the  same  rules  of 
selection  that  govern  the  individual  qua  individual 
also  govern  any  group  of  individuals  qua  group. 

Man  does  not  live  an  isolated  life  ;  he  is  always 
a  component  part  of  some  group,  be  it  a  tribe  or 
a  nation.  Hence  it  is  evident  that  the  instincts, 
feelings,  and  customs  which  form  the  strongest 
bond  of  union  between  members  of  the  same  group 
or  community  are  highly  advantageous  factors  in 
the  struggle  for  existence  which  this  community 
will  have  to  sustain. 


84  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

It  is  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  sympathy 
and  affection  which  the  members  of  a  group  feel 
for  one  another  are  not  only  of  advantage  to  the 
group  in  question,  but  even  constitute  one  of  the 
essential  conditions  of  its  existence.  For  "  sym- 
pathy "  is  a  feeling  which  links  a  man  to  his  fellows 
and  endows  each  member  of  a  community  with  the 
strength  of  the  community  as  a  whole. 

If  there  were  one  tribe  the  members  of  which 
were  sympathetic  in  their  attitude  to  each  other, 
and  another  tribe  in  which  each  man's  care  was  only 
for  himself,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  natural  selec- 
tion would  tend  to  the  preservation  of  the  former 
and  bring  about  the  extinction  of  the  latter. 

Let  us  hear  Darwin  on  the  subject.  Speaking  of 
remote  ages  when  our  savage  ancestors  were 
grouped  together  in  families  or  small  tribes,  he  says  : 
"  When  two  tribes  of  primeval  man,  living  in  the 
same  country,  came  into  competition,  if  (other 
circumstances  being  equal)  the  one  tribe  included 
a  great  number  of  courageous,  sympathetic,  and 
faithful  members,  who  were  always  ready  to  warn 
each  other  of  danger,  to  aid  and  defend  each  other, 
this  tribe  would  succeed  better  and  conquer  the 
other.  Such  a  tribe  would  then  in  the  natural 
course  of  things  spread  and  be  victorious  over  others. 
If  it  should  be  itself  in  turn  conquered,  it  could 
be  only  (other  things  being  equal)  by  some  tribe 
more  richly  endowed  with  these  same  moral  and 
social  qualities.  And  thus  these  qualities  would 
tend  slowly  to  advance  and  be  diffused  through 
the  world." 

Evidently,  also,  these  same  qualities  must  have 
been  of  great  service  to  the  tribe  not  only  in  its 
contests  with  neighbouring  tribes  but  also  in  hunt- 
ing and  in  fighting  against  wild  beasts  (especially  in 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       85 

primitive  times  when  weapons  were  rude  and  imper- 
fect), during  periods  of  famine,  floods,  and  so  forth. 

Natural  selection,  therefore,  has  led  to  the  sur- 
vival of  those  who  in  their  dealings  with  one 
another  showed  most  kindness  and  sympathy  of 
a  practical  nature.  Nor  could  it  possibly  be  other- 
wise, seeing  that  these  two  qualities  tend  to  develop 
and  safeguard  life  itself.  \  v 

Human    morals,    then,    have    passed    through  >^ 
nearly  the  same  phases  or  stages  as  those  of  animals.     ^ 
First  of  all  came  family  morality. ^     Then  wandering       / 
tribes  appeared,  and  their  ethical  sense  was  that    // 
of  the  herd.     Later,   men  established  themselves  // 
in  fixed  abodes,  and  civic  morality  was  born.  ^  / 

For  a  long  time  no  further  progress  was  made. 
All  those  who  were  not  of  the  same  city  or  clan  were 
regarded  as  enemies,  and  when  possible  they  were 
massacred  without  pity,  the  state  of  morality  being 
exactly  the  same  as  that  displayed  by  the  Fuegians 
in  1830. 

At  last  cities  united,  and  the  nation  took  shape. 
Duties  were  extended,  not  only  to  other  families, 
but  to  other  cities.  Men  now  really  began  to  rise 
above  the  level  of  animals  :  they  possessed  national 
morality.  This  national  morality  endured  hundreds 
and  hundreds  of  y^^fs.  it  taught  people  to  help 
the  members  of  the  same  nation,  but  to  detest 
"  foreigners,"  to  consider  them  always  as  enemies, 
and  if  possible  to  destroy  them.  As  has  been  well  / 
said  by  Voltaire  :  "  To  desire  the  greatness  of  one's  ^ 
^wn  country  was  then  notfiing  else  but  to  wish  ill 
to  one's  neighbours." 

1  According  to  some  writers,  it  was  the  single  family  that 
formed  the  starting-point ;  others  think  that  a  number  of  families 
united  at  once  to  form  a  clan.  This  difference  of  opinion,  how- 
ever, is  of  small  moment  as  far  as  our  theory  is  concerned. 


86  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

This  morality  is  still  that  of  most  people.  With 
some,  however,  the  ethical  sense  has  taken  another 
forward  step,  national  morality  with  them  tending 
to  expand  and  become  cosmopolitan.  They  recog- 
nise that  man  owes  duties  towards  the  family,  the 
city,  the  nation,  and  also  towards  humanity  at 
large,  without  distinction  of  race  or  caste.  Cer- 
tainly we  are  right  in  saying  that  moral  progress 
still  continues.  The  dignity  of  human  nature  is 
more  and  more  respected  in  others ;  we  cause  less 
and  less  suffering  ;  tortures  and  slavery  are  not 
tolerated  ;  criminals  are  no  longer  considered  as 
merely  dangerous  beings  against  whom  we  must 
defend  ourselves,  but  rather  as  patients  whom 
we  must  try  to  cure  ;  the  poor  and  the  sick  are 
assisted  in  a  more  intelligent  manner  ;  the  right 
of  each  individual  to  work,  to  air  and  light,  to 
intellectual  life,  and  to  a  certain  degree  of  comfort 
has  been  recognised.  Liberty  of  speech  is  allowed  ; 
the  people  by  their  representatives  make  their 
own  laws  ;  wealth  and  power  offer  less  and  less 
protection  to  the  criminal  against  the  just  applica- 
tion of  these  laws.  Justice  is  at  last  beginning  to 
appear.  Our  sympathy  is  no  longer  limited  to 
those  who  surround  us,  to  those  whom  we  can  see 
with  our  own  eyes,  our  own  family,  our  own  clan, 
the  inhabitants  of  our  own  village  :  it  is  extended 
to  the  whole  of  mankind.  The  unity  of  nations 
for  practical  good  is  a  dream  which  is  tending  to  be 
realised. 

Therefore  we  can  say  with  J.  Payot :  "As  life 
dates  from  the  Silurian  period,  the  laws  of  Nature 
have  been  what  they  are  now  for  many  millions 
of  years.  ...  On  the  other  hand,  this  long 
evolution  which  has  been  going  on  for  thousands 
and   thousands    of   years  has    produced    thinking 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       87 

beings,  and  these  thinking  beings  have  developed 
into  moral  beings.  Are  we  not  then  compelled  to 
admit  that  the  progress  of  things  tends  towards 
thought  and  morality  ?  " 

And  with  C.  Richet :  '*  Man's  intelligence  (and, 
we  would  add,  his  morality)  represents  the  highest 
point  reached  by  organic  evolution.  For  thousands 
and  thousands  of  centuries  billions  upon  billions 
of  beings  have  lived  in  order  to  lead  up  to  this 
result." 

This  length  of  time  has  been  necessary  because 
everything  in  Nature  is  done  slowly,  and  often 
along  broken  lines,  with  ups  and  downs,  deviations 
and  occasional  set-backs — circumstances  but  rarely 
permitting  a  continual  ascent,  or  uninterrupted 
progress  in  a  straight  line. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  clear  enough  from  the  facts 
already  mentioned  that  Nature  always  tends  to 
produce  life  in  its  most  active  form,  and  that  in 
the  struggle  for  existence  [whatever  aspect  it  may 
assume)  those  beings  are  most  favoured  by  the 
operation  of  Nature's  laws  who  possess  in  the  highest 
degree  the  greatest  number  of  qualities  both  mental 
and  moral. 

It  may  therefore  be  said  that  the  object  pursued 
by  Nature  is  not  merely  life,  but  life  reaching  the 
highest  possible  pitch  of  activity,  morality,  and 
intelligence  ;  in  a  word,  the  life  that  is  in  all  respects 
most  complete,  due  regard  being  had  to  time,  cir- 
cumstances, and  environment. 


By  the  persistence  of  life  in  spite  of  all  obstacles 
is  testified  its  will  to  live. 

Every  living  cell,  plant,  or  animal,  every  living 
being,  merely  by  virtue  of  its  being  alive,  wishes  to 


88  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

live  fully  and  completely,  and  desires  the  expansion 
of  its  whole  being.  ^ 

If  this  desire  for  the  preservation  and  the  augmen- 
tation of  life,  for  its  expansion  in  the  fullest  sense 
and  in  every  direction,  is  manifested  perpetually 
and  in  all  places,  it  is  because  it  does  not  come  from 
without  but  is  inherent  in  substance,  in  the  cell, 
in  the  organ,  and  in  the  entire  being. 

One  sees  it  in  the  development  of  the  germ  ; 
in  the  ascending  sap  ;  in  the  tree  which  clothes 
itself  with  blossoms  ;  in  the  egg,  a  homogeneous 
liquid  which  will  nevertheless  produce  a  complete 
bird,  having  brain,  eyes,  beak,  tongue,  bones,  claws, 
wings,  heart,  lungs,  blood,  etc.  ;  in  the  growing 
child ;  in  lungs  that  breathe ;  blood  that  circulates  ; 
digestion  that  acts  ;  wounds  that  heal ;  the  whole 
body  that  fights  against  illness  and  destruction  ; 
in  adaptation  to  environment ;  in  intellectual 
development ;  in  the  thirst  for  knowledge  ;  in  the 
pleasure  derived  from  movements  and  activity ; 
in  the  formation  of  friendships  ;  in  love  springing 
up  in  the  heart  ;  in  the  aesthetic  sense  which  gives 
us  such  sweet  emotions  ;  in  the  sun  which  floods 
the  Earth  with  its  energy ;  in  the  great  life  of  our 
planet ;  in  life  universal,  for  life  is  in  very  truth 
the  law  of  the  Universe. 

Now,  man  is  an  integral  part  of  the  Universe. 
Man  is  a  particle  of  the  Whole  ;    what  the  Whole 


*  Even  voluntary  death  is  (except  in  cases  of  insanity)  an 
unquestionable  proof  of  therrsuicide's  desire  for  the  complete  life. 
He  prefers  to  disappear  rather  than  continue  to  lead  a  stunted 
and  diminished  existence,  or  one  that  he  considers  as  such.  The 
ordinary  cause  of  suicide,  indeed,  is  some  diminution  or  shrinkage 
in  the  mental,  moral,  or  physical  self,  caused  by  a  bereavement, 
by  the  loss  of  fortune  or  social  standing,  by  the  forfeiture  of 
public  esteem,  or  the  deprivation  of  bodily  health  (as  in  the  case 
of  an  incurable  disease) . 


STATEMENT  OF  THE  THEORY       89 

wills,  the  part  must  will  also  ;  where  the  Whole 
goes,  the  part  must  go  also  ;  what  the  Whole 
desires,  the  part  must  desire  also. 

A  moral  man  ought  therefore  to  act  with  the 
Universe,  to  tend  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
Universe,  and  the  will  of  Nature  will  also  be  his 
own. 

That  is  to  say,  he  ought  to  desire  to  live,  and  to 
live  a  life  which  in  all  its  aspects — physical,  in- 
tellectual, moral,  social,  and  aesthetic — ever  tends 
to  become  broader,  stronger,  more  intense,  more 
beautiful,  and  more  harmonious.  His  aim,  like 
that  of  Nature,  should  always  be  the  complete 
expansion,  the  harmonious  development  of  all  his 
being,  the  continual  enlargement  of  his  life. 

What  is  meant  by  the  enlargement  of  life  ?  To 
enlarge  life  is  to  act  more  and  better,  to  work  more 
and  better,  to  produce  more  and  better,  to  feel 
more  and  better,  to  understand  more  and  better, 
to  love  more  and  better,  to  aid  our  fellows  more 
and  better. 

Life,  then,  being  the  criterion  of  Good  and  Evil, 
Natural  Ethics  may  be  defined  as  the  science  which 
has  for  its  object  all  means  of  conserving  and  aug- 
menting life  in  all  its  aspects  (physical,  intellectual, 
moral,  social,  and  aesthetic),  and  thus  realising  the 
full  development  of  the  whole  being.  ^ 

And  to  the  question  with  which  we  started  :  a 
*'  What  is  Good  and  what  is  Evil  ?  "  we  are  now  \ 
able  to  reply  : — "  The  Good  is  everything  that  con-  J 
tributes  to  the  conservation  and  the  enlargement  of  I 
life — that  is  to  say,  to  the  full  development  of  our  I 
physical,  intellectual,  moral,  social,  and  cesthetic  I j 
faculties,  to  the  normal  exercise  of  all  our  activities.  If 
Or,  more  simply,  the  Good  is  everything  that  contri- " 

*  Guyau's  formula  slightly  modified. 


) 


90  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

hutes  to  the  harmonious  expansion  of  the  individual 
and  of  the  groups  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

At  the  same  time,  it  should  he  home  in  mind  that 
the  normal  exercise  of  all  our  activities  can  he  fully 
achieved  only  hy  means  of  union,  co-operation, 
mutual  help,  and  practical  sympathy  towards  all 
living  things,  and  hy  the  active,  never-failing  desire 
to  contribute  as  much  as  possible  to  the  greatest  expan- 
sion of  the  greatest  number,  which  means  that  the 
individual  will,  when  necessary,  sacrifice  himself  of 
his  own  accord  in  the  interests  of  the  group. 

Inversely,  it  may  he  said  that  Evil  is  everything 
that  diminishes  life  to  no  purpose,  everything  that 
unnecessarily  hinders  this  full  development  and 
harmonious  expansion  of  the  individual  and  of  the 
groups,  the  only  rightful  exceptions  to  this  rule 
{which  must  always  he  taken  scrupulously  into  account) 
being  such  as  are  necessitated  hy  the  normal  develop- 
ment of  other  individuals  and  other  groups." 


It  may  be  asserted,  then,  that  the  morahty  of 
an  act  stands  in  direct  ratio  to  its  tendency  to 
preserve,  enlarge,  and  harmoniously  develop  the 
life  of  the  individual  or  group  of  individuals,  and 
that  the  morality  of  a  man  depends  on  the  number 
of  such  acts  performed  by  him.  At  the  same  time 
we  shall  not  forget  that  the  effort  to  improve  the 
quality  of  life  ought  to  take  precedence  of  any 
improvement  in  quantity,  because  there  are  circum- 
stances in  which  we  ought  to  run  the  risk  of  death, 
or  at  any  rate  the  possible  curtailment  of  our 
existence,  in  order  to  fulfil  what  we  consider  to 
be  our  duty  towards  the  group  to  which  we  belong  ; 
for  instance,  rescuing  people  who  are  in  danger,  or 
nursing  those  who  are  suffering  from  an  infectious 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       91 

disease.  We  have  always  to  subordinate  the 
"  more  "  to  the  "  better,"  else  we  are  apt  to  be 
merely  restless  and  ineffectual. 

Every  being,  therefore,  that  strives  to  impart  the 
fullest  possible  development  to  his  own  life  and  to 
the  lives  of  others,  is  a  moral  being. 

It  necessarily  follows  that,  in  this  sense,  plants 
are  moral,  inasmuch  as  they  work  steadily,  though 
perhaps  unconsciously,  to  attain  their  full  develop- 
ment, and,  as  we  have  pointed  out,  do  all  they  can 
to  safeguard  the  lives  of  their  offspring. 

The  same  is  true  of  animals,  though  no  doubt 
they  act  less  unconsciously. 

For  an  action  to  be  moral,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  it  should  be  done  after  mature  deliberation, 
a  careful  weighing  of  the  pros  and  cons,  and  with 
a  full  realisation  of  the  advantages  or  dangers 
entailed  by  it.  So  far  from  that  being  so,  an  action 
may  very  well  be  moral  and  yet  instinctive  and 
unpremeditated.  The  mother  who  instinctively 
and  without  reflection  exposes  herself  to  danger 
in  order  to  save  her  child,  performs  a  moral  act, 
no  matter  whether  she  be  a  woman  protecting  her 
infant  from  a  murderer  or  a  cat  impelled  by  the  same 
motive  to  rush  at  a  dog  ten  times  her  own  size. 

Nor  is  it  essential  that  an  act,  in  order  to  be  moral, 
should  be  "  hard  of  accomplishment  and  grievous 
to  the  heart."  A  whole  host  of  pleasurable  acts  are 
moral :  an  excursion  in  the  country  to  "  set  one- 
self up  "  after  a  good  bout  of  honest  work,  a  game 
of  tennis  to  keep  our  limbs  supple,  showing  a  smiling 
face  in  order  to  cheer  up  those  around  us,  etc. 


The  definition  of  Good  that  we  have  given  above 
applies  not  only  to  every  individual  but  also  to 


92  AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

every  group  of  individuals.  Taking  our  own  body  as 
an  illustration,  we  see  that  this  definition  is  valid 
in  the  first  place  for  each  of  our  cells ;  secondly, 
for  each  of  our  organs,  which  are  nothing  but  an 
assemblage  of  cells ;  and  lastly,  for  the  whole  body, 
composed  as  it  is  of  these  same  organs  acting  in 
unison. 

The  same  holds  good  for  any  collection  of  indi- 
viduals, whether  it  be  a  natural  group,  such  as  the 
family,  or  the  result  of  a  long  series  of  historical 
events  (a  nation),  or  an  entirely  artificial  group 
(one  of  the  numerous  leagues  or  associations  for 
political,  philanthropic,  scientific,  or  literary  pur- 
poses). For  the  individual  as  for  every  sort  of 
group,  ranging  from  a  single  family  to  the  whole 
of  the  human  race,  the  Good  will  be  anything  that 
helps  to  further  its  development,  its  harmonious 
expansion,  the  exercise  of  all  its  activities,  and 
the  enlargement  of  its  life. 

This  system  of  ethics,  then,  is  universal  in  its 
application.  1 

The  outline  of  an  ethical  system  based  on  the 
laws  of  Nature  would  not  be  complete  unless 
we  made  some  few  remarks  on  a  question  which 

^  As  soon  as  our  legislators  are  convinced  of  the  truth  of  this 
definition  of  Good,  they  will  understand  that  all  laws  should 
have  only  two  objects  :  (i)  to  foster  the  growth  and  expansion 
of  the  individual,  and  also  to  ensure  the  proper  working  of  all 
institutions  and  associations  which  help  to  further  this  expansion  ; 
(2)  to  suppress  anything  that  is  Ukely  to  hinder  the  complete 
development  of  the  individual  or  of  the  group  to  which  he  belongs. 
In  other  words,  the  object  of  laws  should  be  to  enable  each  indi- 
vidual and  each  group  to  develop  to  their  fullest  extent,  unim- 
peded by  any  restrictions  other  than  those  necessarily  arising 
from  the  normal  development  of  other  individuals  or  groups. 
Moreover,  since  man  is  too  feeble  and  the  sport  of  too  many 
contingencies  to  stand  alone,  the  legislator  will  make  it  his  en- 
deavour to  promote  the  feeling  of  solidarity  and  to  encourage 
every  form  of  co-operation. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       93 

is  as  old  as  the  world  itself :  the  [question  of 
happiness. 

Happiness  is  not  unusually  supposed  to  be  the 
object  o!  life,  and  when  we  are  not  so  happy  as 
we  think  that  we  have  a  right  to  be  (for  it  is  assumed 
to  be  a  right)  we  groan  and  exclaim  against 
Providence,  find  fault  with  Nature,  and  pose  as 
the  victims  of  destiny.  This  is  due  to  our  confusing 
the  end  with  the  means. 

Let  us  suppose  two  countries  to  be  at  war.  Each 
of  them,  wishing  to  get  the  better  of  its  antagonist, 
devises  all  sorts  of  means  by  which  its  soldiers  and 
officers  may  be  induced  to  exert  themselves  to  the 
utmost :  mention  in  despatches,  service  medals, 
promotion,  pensions,  etc.  Now,  the  idea  that 
happiness  is  the  object  of  life  is  much  the  same 
thing  as  thinking  that  the  winning  of  a  medal  is 
the  sole  object  of  war  ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  a 
country  only  goes  to  war  in  order  that  it  may  bestow 
decorations  on  a  certain  number  of  officers.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  war  as  normally  waged  by  a  nation 
is  either  an  offensive  war,  for  the  sake  of  securing 
certain  advantages  which  she  thinks,  rightly  or 
wrongly  (generally  the  latter),  will  aid  in  her 
development  and  enable  her  to  enjoy  a  larger  life  ; 
or  a  defensive  war  for  the  preservation  of  her 
independence — that  is,  to  enable  her  to  continue  her 
development  unchecked,  and  to  live  her  own  life. 
And  in  both  cases,  mention  in  despatches,  promo- 
tion, and  distribution  of  medals  are  only  so  many 
means  to  bring  about  the  desired  end. 

Nature  acts  in  a  similar  manner.  Since  the 
object  of  life  lies  within  itself,  being  in  fact  a  life 
ever  fuller  and  more  complete.  Nature,  in  order  to 
stimulate  us  to  do  our  utmost  in  this  direction, 
rewards  each  of  our  efforts  by  giving  us  a  pro- 


94  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

portionate  feeling  of  pleasure.  We  can  truly  say 
that  any  act  which  tends  to  increase  the  fullness 
of  our  life  gives  us  pleasure,  for  pleasure  (or  happi- 
ness) is  nothing  else  but  the  sensation  or  conscious- 
ness of  a  more  vigorous,  active,  and  harmonious 
existence. 

Thus,  we  experience  the  purely  physical  pleasure 
or  satisfaction  of  eating  and  drinking  (actions  which 
are  essential  to  life),  or,  when  we  are  children,  of 
running,  jumping,  and  shouting  (forms  of  activity 
necessary  for  the  development  of  the  bodily  organs)  ; 
later  on,  the  intellectual  and  aesthetic  pleasures 
of  friendly  intercourse,  of  beholding  fine  works  of 
art  or  listening  to  beautiful  music  ;  of  travelling, 
acquiring  information,  and  exerting  influence  on 
others.  There  is  the  intimate  pleasure  which  comes 
simply  from  living  and  doing ;  or  again,  the  more 
specific  pleasure  which  springs  from  requited  love  ; 
and  lastly,  the  greatest  pleasure  of  all,  which  is  the 
reward  of  those  rarely  gifted  souls  who  unselfishly 
sacrifice  themselves  for  the  good  of  others  :  the 
man  who  rushes  to  the  rescue  of  women  and  children 
in  a  burning  house  ;  the  nurse  and  the  physician 
who  unreservedly  lavish  their  skill  and  devotion 
on  patients  suffering  from  infectious  diseases ; 
the  statesman  who  strives  in  a  good  cause  in  spite 
of  insult  and  calumny  ;  or  the  man  of  science  who 
devotes  all  his  time  and  thought  to  the  quest  of 
truth  ; — in  a  word,  all  those  who  work,  fight,  or 
suffer  in  order  to  ameliorate  the  sum  total  of  human 
life.  These  pleasures  are  really,  in  every  case, 
the  means  which  Nature  employs  in  order  to  lead 
us  in  the  way  she  desires,  namely,  towards  an 
increase  in  the  intensity  of  our  own  life  or  of  the 
life  of  the  Whole. 

In  making  happiness  our  immediate  aim,  then. 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       95 

we  are  going  the  wrong  way  to  work,  and  it  eludes 
us  ;  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  endeavour  to  increase, 
in  ourselves  and  in  the  greater  or  lesser  groups  to 
which  we  belong,  the  quantity,  and  above  all  the 
quality,  of  life,  we  shall  assuredly  taste  pleasures 
of  a  profoundly  sweet  and  satisfying  nature — 
pleasures  which  seem  to  be  lasting  because  they 
are  so  constantly  renewed. 

Perhaps  it  will  be  said  that  this  is  only  a  quibble, 
and  that  as  a  matter  of  fact  we  are  all  making  for 
the  same  goal  of  happiness,  though  by  different 
roads.  It  may  be  so.  But  it  seems  to  us  that  he 
who  acts  with  the  sole  object  of  being  happy  has 
attained  neither  the  intellectual  stature  nor  the 
moral  dignity  of  one  who,  attaching  only  a  secondary 
value  to  the  happiness  which  may  result  from  his 
efforts,  brings  development  and  harmony  into  his 
life  from  a  sense  of  duty  not  only  towards  himself 
but  also  towards  the  Whole  of  which  he  is  part 
and  parcel. 

Moreover,  it  is  clear  that  in  many  cases  our 
actions  will  differ  accordingly  as  we  make  happiness 
the  direct  object  of  our  search,  or  try,  as  we  have 
said,  to  increase  the  quantity,  and  more  particularly 
to  enhance  the  quality,  of  life  that  is  in  us  and  around 
us.  Such  differences  are  observable  even  in  the  most 
ordinary  affairs  of  life,  as  for  instance  in  the  per- 
formance of  a  tedious  and  monotonous  piece  of  work. 
Is  it  not  highly  probable  that  one  who  only  seeks 
his  own  happiness  will  do  the  work  in  a  petulant 
spirit,  and  with  many  groans  and  complaints  ? 
And  the  completed  task,  done  as  it  is  in  haste  in 
order  that  it  may  be  got  rid  of  as  soon  as  possible, 
will  do  no  credit  to  its  author,  who  will  feel  dissatis- 
fied with  himself  in  consequence. 

Another  type  of  man,  whose  first  concern  is  the 


96  ^A^  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

harmonious  development  of  his  nature,  will  perform 
his  task,  however  uninteresting  it  may  be  in  itself, 
with  cheerful  placidity,  knowing  as  he  does  that  all 
work — everything  that  requires  an  effort — tends 
to  develop  precious  qualities  in  the  person  who 
does  it  with  zest  and  intelligence,  ever  striving  to 
bring  it  to  greater  perfection. 

Is  it  not  also  a  fact  that  the  seeker  after  happiness 
easily  yields  to  a  certain  form  of  egoism  (refined 
egoism,  it  may  be,  but  egoism  for  all  that)  which 
leads  a  man  to  do  good  not  for  the  love  of  it  but  in 
order  that  he  may  be  spared  the  depressing  sight 
of  another's  pain  ? — for  the  seeker  after  happiness 
always  makes  self  his  guiding  principle. 

Egoism  of  this  kind  is  responsible  for  that  peculiar 
type  of  wife  who,  so  the  story  goes,  refused  to  tend 
her  husband  during  a  serious  illness  on  the  plea 
that  the  sight  of  his  suffering  would  be  too  painful 
to  one  who  loved  him  as  she  did  ;  and  who,  in  order 
to  avoid  this  "  pain,"  spent  the  day  at  the  house 
of  a  friend,  where  she  knew  that  the  most  agreeable 
attentions  would  be  showered  on  her. 

Lastly,  those  who  live  for  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness, despite  all  their  precautions,  soon  reach  the 
point  at  which  they  confuse  happiness  with  plea- 
sures or  enjoyment,  very  often  with  disastrous 
consequences  for  themselves  and  for  others. 


We  may  add  that  our  individual  life  can  never 
possess  its  full  value  and  intensity  unless  the  group 
to  which  we  belong  has  itself  attained  a  certain 
degree  of  development. 

It  is  not  easy,  for  instance,  to  imagine  a  Darwin, 
a  Shakespeare,  a  Pasteur,  a  Goethe,  or  a  Leonardo 
da  Vinci  being  born  and  bringing  their  genius  to 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY        97 

full  maturity  among  the  aborigines  of  Tierra  del 
Fuego  or  any  other  uncivilised  tribe. 

The  intensity  of  our  individual  life,  therefore, 
and  the  number  of  our  activities  as  well  as  our 
pleasures  will  increase  in  proportion  to  the  com- 
pleteness with  which  our  environment  has  been 
developed. 

And  inasmuch  as  the  expansion  of  our  nature 
and  the  happiness  resulting  therefrom  depend  very 
largely  on  our  environment,  we  can  assert  that  it 
is  to  our  interest  to  further  by  all  means  in  our 
power  the  harmony  and  development  of  this  en- 
vironment, which  is  nothing  else  than  the  com- 
munity in  which  we  live. 

Thus  we  see  that  our  ethical  system  based  on  the 
Laws  of  Nature  satisfies  the  two  primary  instincts 
of  man,  the  egoistic  and  the  altruistic,  since  it 
urges  us  to  help  in  the  expansion  and  enlargement 
of  other  people's  lives  in  order  that  we  may  be  able 
to  expand  and  enlarge  our  own  life  in  like  manner. 


The  cult  of  Life,  then,  interpreted  in  the  right 
sense,  will  be  a  sufficient  index  for  the  correctness 
of  our  conduct  both  in  public  and  in  private, 
and  consequently  it  will  be  able  to  give  us  all  the 
pleasures  or  all  the  happiness  that  is  agreeable  to 
our  natural  constitution. 

Anyone  who  may  be  inclined  to  cast  doubt  on 
this  assertion  need  only  put  our  system  into 
practice  for  a  certain  time,  by  way  of  experiment ; 
and  if  the  trial  is  made  in  good  faith,  the  result 
will  be  conclusive.  In  truth,  such  an  experiment 
is  within  everybody's  power,  for  the  duties  enjoined 
by  this  moral  code  are  easy  to  understand  and  easy 
to  carry  out. 

7 


98  AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

All  the  standard  rules  of  health,  for  example, 
will  be  adopted,  since  they  tend  to  the  preservation 
and  development  of  life.  We  shall  take  plenty  of 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  we  shall  perform  copious 
ablutions,  we  shall  avoid  alcohol  in  any  form 
whatsoever,  and  always  be  on  our  guard  against 
excess  of  every  description. 

We  shall  also  be  alive  to  the  importance  of 
labour,  both  physical  and  mental,  for  the  develop- 
ment of  brain  and  body  adds  to  the  intensity  and 
value  of  our  life.  Work  will  no  longer  appear  in  the 
light  of  a  punishment  inflicted  by  an  angry  God  on 
man,  but  rather  as  a  privilege  and  an  honour  which 
everyone  should  be  anxious  to  claim.  And,  indeed, 
what  is  it  but  a  privilege  and  an  honour  to  be  able 
by  our  own  efforts  to  perfect  and  embellish  the 
life  which  is  in  us  ? 

We  shall  not  allow  ourselves  to  forget  the  ex- 
tremely important  part  played  by  kindness  in  the 
unfolding  of  our  own  nature  and  that  of  others. 
It  is  by  kindness  that  we  alleviate  the  sorrows  and 
misfortunes  of  our  fellows,  mitigate  or  even  prevent 
causes  of  offence  amongst  those  with  whom  we 
live,  soothe  and  encourage  them,  and  bring  them 
back  to  the  way  in  which  they  ought  to  go.  All 
this  helps  to  promote  the  development  of  life. 

In  fine,  by  the  wise  diffusion  of  an  atmosphere 
of  kindness  we  win  the  hearts  and  minds  of  men, 
so  that,  as  the  number  of  persons  having  trust 
in  us  increases,  our  power  for  good  will  increase 
as  well. 

But  in  order  that  the  quality  of  kindness  may 
lose  none  of  its  value,  it  must  be  full  of  activity, 
sympathy,  and  insight ;  it  must  be  attentive, 
patient,  helpful  in  counsel,  and  lovable,  yet  at  the 
same  time  firm  and  prudent.     It  must  be  guided 


STATEMENT  OF   THE   THEORY       99 

by  a  sense  of  justice,  so  that  in  benefiting  one  it 
may  not  be  hurtful  to  another.  Lastly — and  this 
applies  particularly  to  maternal  kindness — it  will 
be  even  more  concerned  for  the  future  than  for  the 
present,  and  will  refuse  to  sacrifice  prospective 
happiness  for  the  sake  of  immediate  enjoyment 
lasting  but  a  few  moments. 

Still  taking  Life  as  our  guide,  we  shall  also 
realise  the  necessity  of  developing  firmness  of  will, 
courage,  attentiveness,  patience,  perseverance  in  our 
efforts,  self-respect,  and  sympathy  for  all  living 
things.  We  shall  understand  that  there  must  be 
in  our  hearts  a  passionate  love  of  truth  and  justice, 
and  that  we  must  always  be  ready  to  sacrifice 
everything  unflinchingly  for  their  sake. 

We  shall  be  thoroughly  aware  of  the  scope  and 
importance  of  solidarity,  that  scheme  of  mutual 
interdependence  from  which  we  can  never  escape, 
and  which,  with  or  without  our  knowledge,  exer- 
cises its  influence  for  good  or  evil  on  us  all. 

We  shall  bear  in  mind  that  every  action  per- 
formed by  us,  whether  good  or  bad,  not  only  has  its 
effect  on  our  own  nature,  physical,  mental,  and  moral, 
but  also  reacts  directly  or  indirectly  on  others. 

We  shall  feel  very  strongly  that  this  expansion 
of  the  entire  self  which  is  the  aim  of  life  can  only 
be  achieved  by  mutual  aid,  union,  and  co-operation. 
It  will  be  quite  plain  to  us  that  one  who  lives  solely 
for  himself  is  unable  to  find  scope  for  all  his  activi- 
ties, "  for  it  is  the  peculiarity  of  egoism  that  it 
narrows  the  range  of  thought,  limits  our  aspirations, 
and,  by  seeking  to  impose  restrictions  on  life  in  the 
interests  of  a  single  person,  diminishes  instead  of 
enlarging  it."  For  the  enlargement  of  hfe,  as  we 
have  already  said,  involves  above  all  an  increase  in 
the  amount  and  the  intensity  of  loving  and  doing. 


TOO  ^iV  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Being  aware  that  the  Laws  of  Nature — that  is 
to  say,  the  unvarying  succession  of  phenomena — 
are  tlie  outward  expression  of  a  principle  of  neces- 
sity inherent  in  the  constitution  of  things,  we  shall 
understand  that  they  cannot  be  other  than  they 
are.  So  far  from  complaining  at  times  of  their 
being  unjust,  we  shall  on  the  contrary  admire  their 
justice  and  their  constancy,  seeing  that  they  always 
act  in  the  same  direction  and  always  pursue  the 
same  goal,  never  allowing  themselves  to  be  turned 
aside  or  impeded  in  their  course.  Being  convinced 
that  a  given  act  is  invariably  followed  by  the  same 
effect  or  phenomenon,  we  shall  see  to  it  that  all 
our  voluntary  acts  are  such  as  will  be  followed  by 
effects  favourable  to  the  harmonious  development 
and  expansion  of  life,  and  we  shall  carefully 
refrain  from  the  commission  of  acts  resulting  in 
phenomena  that  might  be  injurious  to  this  expan- 
sion in  ourselves  or  in  others. 

And  our  obedience  to  these  commands  which  are 
formulated  by  life  itself  will  be  thoroughly  sincere, 
for  in  the  depths  of  our  inner  self  there  will  be 
the  conviction,  ever  growing  stronger,  that  in  the 
vital  instinct  alone,  and  nowhere  beside,  can  true 
morality  find  a  firm  and  unshakable  foundation. 

Against  arbitrary  commandments,  imposed  from 
without,  we  might  rebel,  but  the  commandments 
of  life  itself,  the  life  that  is  in  our  veins,  we  shall 
accept  as  something  natural  and  logical  and  good. 


Part  II 

Complement  to  the  Theory  in  the 
form  of  Answers  to  Objections 

Objection  : — "  Since  Nature's  desire  is  for  life,  why  should 
there  be  death  ?  " 

Answer  : — Nature  requires  death  precisely  be- 
cause she  always  wants  more  life.  The  energy  of 
the  body  is  gradually  exhausted — it  is  impossible 
that  it  should  not  exhaust  itself, — organs  become 
worn  out — it  is  impossible  that  they  should  not  wear 
out, — and  a  time  comes  when  the  aged  are  happy  to 
have  finished  their  task,  and  when  they  long  for 
rest.  Nature  does  not  tolerate  inertia,  non-activity. 
What  she  requires  is  work  under  all  its  forms.  The 
aged  and  the  infirm  die  because  they  have  done 
with  activity.  They  must  make  room  for  young 
people  who  are  stronger,  more  energetic,  more 
capable  of  work,  more  zealous,  more  enthusiastic. 
Life  can  only  exist  when  it  is  continually  renewed. 
The  forms  assumed  by  life  are  only  transitory,  but 
the  aim  which  Nature  pursues  is  undoubtedly  life, 
for  she  dispenses  it  lavishly  everywhere,  and  even 
engenders  it  from  death  itself,  only  re-absorbing 
her  atoms  and  electrons  in  order  to  build  them  up 
again  into  new  bodies  and  new  combinations. 

Finally,  let  it  be  noted  that  death  is  not  cruel 
to  the  dying,  but  only  to  those  who  see  their  loved 

lOI 


102  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

ones  taken  from  them.     (For  a  fuller  treatment  of 
the  subject  of  death,  see  Part  IV.) 


Objection : — "  If  Nature  passionately  loves  life,  why 
should  there  be  tempests,  cyclones,  earthquakes,  etc.,  which 
spread  disorder,  terror,  and  death  ?  " 

Answer  : — Listen  to  Louis  Bourdeau  :  "In  all 
calamities  (tempests,  volcanic  eruptions,  meteoro- 
logical irregularities,  etc.)  which  cause  us  to  lament, 
we  ought  to  see  .  .  .  the  normal  activity  of  a  world 
which  carries  out  its  cosmic  functions.  These 
accidents  which  we  call  disorders  are,  on  the  con- 
trary, a  part  of  its  order  .  .  .  and  since  we  benefit 
by  this  order  through  the  conditions  favourable  to 
life  which  it  creates  for  us,  we  ought  uncom- 
plainingly to  put  up  with  the  detrimental  side  of 
its  activity.  .  .  .  There  is  no  confusion,  except 
partially  and  in  detail.  Harmony  reigns  in  the 
whole  because  it  performs  its  evolution  with  regu- 
larity, securing  to  the  series  of  beings  that  are 
incorporated  in  its  unity  an  environment  favour- 
able to  their  development." 

The  Laws  of  Nature  being  what  they  are  (and 
they  cannot  be  otherwise,  since  they  are  the  mani- 
festation of  a  necessity  inherent  in  the  constitution 
of  things),  such  calamities  are  bound  to  occur. 

There  were  only  two  possible  alternatives  :  either 
a  world  devoid  of  life  and  eternally  inactive,  in  which 
no  development  is  possible  ;  or  a  living  world  full 
of  motion  and  activity,  but  subject  to  occasional 
catastrophes.  Without  these  catastrophes,  indeed, 
the  Hfe  that  quickens  all  the  earth  could  not 
continue,  and  death  would  reign  no  longer  partially 
but  completely  over  the  surface  of  our  globe  ;  or 
rather,  it  would  not  be  death  but  non-existence, 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  103 

for  nothing  would  ever  have  Hved.  Here  again  we 
find  Nature  destroying  in  order  to  increase  the 
sum  of  hfe. 


Objection : — "  Nature  is  unjust,  because  she  often  allows 
the  good  to  perish  in  shipwrecks,  railway  accidents,  earth- 
quakes, and  epidemics,  while  many  wicked  people  survive. 
It  frequently  happens,  too,  that  persons  who  are  highly 
virtuous  and  deserving  of  happiness  come  to  grief  in  their 
undertakings." 

Answer  : — For  the  sake  of  clearness,  we  will  deal 
separately  with  each  of  the  five  cases  here  put 
forward. 

We  will  suppose,  then,  that  a  ship  founders  in 
a  storm  at  sea.  In  the  first  place,  let  it  be  observed 
that  the  force  of  the  hurricane,  as  well  as  the  path 
which  it  follows,  are  determined  by  fixed  laws. 
The  atmospheric  conditions  which  gave  rise  to  the 
squall  were  the  result  of  previous  conditions,  and 
these  in  their  turn  had  been  caused  by  others  still 
more  remote,  and  so  on  indefinitely — all  in  obedience 
to  the  unalterable  laws  without  which  our  earth 
would  be  a  mere  conglomeration  of  matter  quite 
devoid  of  life. 

It  follows,  then,  that  in  order  to  alter  the  path 
of  the  storm  or  the  time  of  its  bursting,  or  merely 
to  mitigate  its  violence,  Nature  would  have  had  to 
suspend  or  modify  a  multitude  of  laws  (probably 
even  those  that  determine  the  size  and  the  number 
of  sun-spots)  ;  or,  in  other  words.  Nature  would 
have  been  obliged  to  shatter  the  whole  cosmic 
order,  for  all  phenomena  are  so  closely  connected 
that  the  slightest  change  in  any  one  of  them  would 
doubtless  result  in  universal  chaos  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  all  living  things,  unless  indeed  the  modi- 
fication was  introduced  slowly  enough — extending 


104  ^N  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

over  millions  of  years — to  enable  lifS  to  adapt 
itself  gradually  to  the  environment  brought  about 
by  these  new  laws  or  this  new  sequence  of  phe- 
nomena. 

Being  the  result,  then,  of  a  whole  host  of  causes 
and  effects,  the  storm  was  absolutely  bound  to 
begin  at  one  particular  spot,  follow  such  and  such 
a  path,  and  attain  a  certain  degree  of  intensity. 
A  certain  part  of  the  ocean  must  necessarily,  there- 
fore, be  the  scene  of  a  hurricane  ;  and  if  a  ship  of 
small  tonnage  or  faulty  construction,  or  one  that 
is  either  overloaded  or  underloaded,  or  too  old, 
or  unskilfully  handled,  happens  to  be  within  this 
area,  a  shipwreck  may  very  well  be  the  outcome  ; 
and  the  pcLssengers  that  are  saved  will  not  neces- 
sarily be  those  that  are  most  virtuous  or  most 
useful  to  the  human  race,  but  in  all  probability 
those  who — whether  they  be  criminals  or  no — are 
the  most  expert  swimmers,  or  are  wearing  some 
kind  of  life-saving  apparatus,  or  who  succeed  in 
getting  a  place  in  one  of  the  lifeboats. 

There  is  really  no  connection  at  all  between 
"  being  virtuous  "  and  "  wearing  a  life-belt."  The 
man  of  virtue  obeys  certain  moral  laws,  and  is 
rewarded  by  a  feeling  of  great  inward  satisfaction  ; 
the  wearer  of  a  life-belt  obeys  the  laws  of  hydro- 
statics, and  is  rewarded  by  being  kept  above  the 
surface  of  the  water. 

Because  a  man  obeys  moral  laws  it  does  not 
follow  that  he  can  set  physical  laws  at  defiance. 

Nature  rewards  him  who,  in  a  certain  situation, 
obeys  the  laws  relating  to  that  situation,  and 
punishes  him  if  he  does  not  obey  them,  whatever 
the  reasons  may  be  that  prevent  him  from  doing 
so.  Were  she  to  act  otherwise,  there  would  be 
nothing  but  chaos,  anarchy,  and  disorder. 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  105 

Let  us  now  turn  to  the  railway  accident.  An 
accident  of  this  kind  may  be  due  either  to  the  care- 
lessness of  the  engine-driver  or  the  pointsman,  or 
to  the  negligence  of  those  whose  duty  it  is  to 
inspect  the  line  or  the  rolling  stock,  or  lastly, 
perhaps,  to  heavy  rains  which  have  soaked  through 
the  permanent  way  and  caused  it  to  collapse. 

All  these  causes  except  the  last  are  attributable 
to  human  agency,  and  are  therefore  excluded  from 
the  terms  and  scope  of  the  objection.  There  re- 
mains only  the  accident  caused  by  the  rains.  But 
what  we  have  just  said  about  storms  is  equally 
applicable  to  rain.  In  order  to  prevent  rain  from 
falling  in  a  given  quantity  on  such  and  such  a  day 
and  on  some  particular  spot,  it  would  have  been 
necessary  to  interfere  with  the  working  of  natural 
laws,  and  any  such  upsetting  of  the  order  of  the 
universe  would  have  given  rise  to  catastrophes  far 
more  frightful  than  any  railway  accident,  however 
shocking  the  latter  may  be. 

If  the  infiltration  of  water,  then,  or  the  collapse 
of  the  permanent  way,  is  not  noticed  by  the  com- 
pany's engineer,  the  accident  will  occur,  and  any 
man,  be  he  virtuous  or  criminal,  who  happens  to 
be  in  the  place  of  danger  will  doubtless  perish.  If 
he  is  crushed  to  death,  it  will  not  be  because  he  is 
a  good  man  or  a  bad  man,  but  simply  because — 
through  a  lengthy  chain  of  circumstances  —  he 
happened  to  be  "  on  the  spot,"  and  being  a  living 
creature,  composed  of  flesh  and  bones,  was  unable 
to  withstand  so  violent  a  shock  without  fatal 
injury. 

With  regard  to  earthquakes,  they  are  caused  by 
some  local  subsidence,  or  by  volcanic  activity,  or 
by  a  sudden  rupture  due  to  the  straining  and 
squeezing  of  the  earth's  crust — all  of  them  move- 


io6  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

ments  which  are  bound  up  with  the  *'  life  "  of  our 
planet.  And,  just  as  in  the  case  of  the  railway 
accident,  any  man,  irrespective  of  what  his  virtues 
may  be,  will  perish  if  a  "  chain  of  circumstances  " 
should  have  brought  him  to  the  scene  of  the 
disaster. 

The  fourth  objection  has  reference  to  epidemics. 
Now,  the  appearance  of  an  epidemic,  it  goes  without 
saying,  is  only  due  to  our  own  ignorance  or  indiffer- 
ence, both  leading  to  the  neglect  of  precautions 
required  by  the  laws  of  health. 

So  much  having  been  premised,  let  us  see  why 
it  is  that  one  man  will  shake  off  his  illness  without 
much  trouble,  while  another  will  not  recover  from  it. 

Epidemics  are  caused  by  pathogenetic  bacilli ; 
and  the  serum  of  our  blood  and  the  phagocytes 
whose  function  it  is  to  counteract  or  destroy  their 
toxins  will  do  their  work  with  greater  or  less 
effectiveness  according  to  the  nature  of  our  ancestry 
and  the  care  with  which  we  ourselves  have  observed 
the  rules  of  health. 

If,  by  reason  of  their  infraction  of  biological  laws, 
a  man's  ancestors  have  bequeathed  to  him  certain 
physical  defects  resulting  in  an  inferior  quality  of 
serum  or  in  the  sluggishness  of  his  phagocytes,  or  if  he 
himself  has  transgressed  so  seriously  and  frequently 
as  to  weaken  his  power  of  resistance,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  he  will  find  himself  beaten  in  the 
struggle  for  life,  even  if  he  is  good  and  generous  by 
disposition,  or  the  only  child  of  an  adoring  mother. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  physiological  qualities 
that  his  ancestors  have  transmitted  to  him  are 
such  as  to  ensure  the  excellence  of  his  serum  and 
the  vigorous  activity  of  his  phagocytes,  if  he  has 
scrupulously  avoided  excess  and  observed  the  laws 
of  health  in  every  detail,  he  will  probably  succeed 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  107 

in  extricating  himself,  even  though  his  moral  char- 
acter may  not  be  particularly  commendable. 

Thus  it  is  neither  a  good  man  nor  a  bad  man 
as  such  who  falls  a  victim  to  these  bacilli,  but  simply 
one  who,  through  his  own  fault  or  that  of  his  an- 
cestors, is  incapable  of  resisting  their  attacks. 

Lastly — and  this  is  our  reply  to  the  fifth  objection 
— let  us  remember  that  if  we  wish  to  succeed  in 
our  undertakings,  we  must  observe  the  laws  that 
apply  to  each  particular  case.  It  does  not  neces- 
sarily follow,  for  example,  that  a  man  will  succeed 
in  his  business  affairs  because  he  is  a  devoted  son 
and  an  admirable  father,  or  has  a  fellow-feeling  for 
the  misfortunes  of  others,  if  at  the  same  time  he 
is  incompetent,  makes  use  of  defective  plant,  is 
remiss  in  his  attendance  at  the  works  or  at  the  office, 
or,  in  a  word,  does  not  put  all  his  brains  and  energy 
into  his  business. 


Objection  : — "  What  is  the  object  of  heredity  ?  Why 
should  we  suffer  for  the  sins  of  our  ancestors  ?  Why  should 
the  tendency  to  disease  be  transmitted  ?  Why  does  Nature 
allow  heredity  in  things  evil  ?  Why  is  it  not  confined  to 
good  and  virtuous  qualities  ;  and  why  are  physical,  mental, 
and  moral  imperfections  not  personal  and  intransmissible  ?  " 

Answer  : — The  general  law  of  heredity  may  be 
briefly  stated  as  follows  :  "  Like  tends  to  produce 
like,  though  subject  to  variations  which  are  due 
to  the  diverse  and  multiplex  influences  of  more 
or  less  remote  ancestors,  as  well  as  to  environ- 
ment and  the  particular  circumstances  of  each 
case." 

Stability  is  ensured  by  the  first  part  of  this  law 
(like  produces  like),  but  for  which  all  would  be 
disorder,  confusion,  and  chaos.  It  is  owing  to  this 
principle  that  oak  springs  from  oak  and  violet  from 


io8  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

violet,  that  elephant  begets  elephant  and  partridge 
begets  partridge. 

By  the  second  part  of  the  law  (stating  that  this 
uniformity  is  modified  through  the  influence  of 
ancestors  more  or  less  remote  as  well  as  by  circum- 
stances and  environment)  innumerable  variations 
are  made  possible. 

Now,  the  importance  of  variation  is  indisputable. 
Those  variations  that  are  useful  to  the  individual 
or  the  species  will  persist,  and  evolution  will  be 
carried  a  step  further  ;  those,  on  the  other  hand, 
that  are  harmful  will  bring  about  the  disappearance 
of  the  individuals  in  whom  they  are  exhibited,  or 
of  their  descendants. 

The  first  part  of  this  law,  then,  ensures  order  and 
stability,  while  the  second  part  ensures  progress, 
development  of  the  race,  and  adaptation  to  en- 
vironment. Thus,  heredity  is  necessary  to  the 
general  good,  and  that  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  its 
existence. 

As  for  explaining  why  we  suffer  for  the  faults 
committed  by  our  ancestors,  why  the  tendency  to 
disease  is  transmitted,  and  why  heredity  is  not 
confined  to  good  and  virtuous  qualities,  it  will 
suffice  to  say  that,  as  a  general  rule,  heredity 
operates  en  bloc,  and  that  we  inherit  both  virtues 
and  vices,  qualities  and  defects — in  a  word,  all 
the  tendencies,  for  good  as  well  as  for  evil,  of  our 
forefathers. 

And  that  is  something  which  cannot  be  otherwise 
than  it  is.  In  order  to  make  a  selection  among  the 
whole  number  of  different  tendencies,  so  as  to  hand 
down  only  the  good  and  not  the  bad.  Nature  would 
have  to  be  performing  a  perpetual  miracle — an 
impossible  feat.  Every  other  moment  she  would 
be  obliged  to  suspend  the  working  of  the  primordial 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  109 

law,  "  like  engenders  like,*'  a  law  which  ensures 
the  stability  and  continuity  of  life.  The  universe 
is  bound  together  by  necessary  laws — laws,  that  is 
to  say,  which  ensure  the  existence  of  the  whole 
and  the  development  of  the  individual.  Now,  this 
twofold  object  is  secured  by  the  two  parts  of  the 
law  of  heredity  acting  in  unison.  Like  engenders 
like,  hence  Nature  cannot  produce  an  oak  tree  from 
mignonette  seed  ;  and  for  the  same  reason  she  can- 
not cause  a  man  of  intelligence  and  discretion,  well 
balanced  and  fond  of  work,  to  be  born  of  imbecile 
parents  (individuals  suffering  from  cerebral  lesions). 

In  cases,  however,  where  bodily,  mental,  or  moral 
health  is  too  greatly  disturbed  by  vices  of  any 
description,  the  race  dies  out,  and  consequently 
these  vices  are  no  longer  transmitted.  Such  is  the 
case  with  drunkards,  whose  posterity  are  doomed  to 
extinction  in  the  second  or  third  generation  unless 
there  is  a  reaction  and  a  strict  observance  of  the 
laws  of  health  on  the  part  of  the  descendants. 

It  is  for  us,  then,  to  fight  against  evil  tendencies 
that  hinder  the  full  development  of  life,  and  to  take 
the  steps  required  to  increase  our  bodily,  intellectual, 
and  moral  strength.  Many  succeed  in  this  attempt. 
Many  who  were  brought  into  the  world  with  a 
pronounced  tendency  to  one  disease  or  another  have 
managed,  without  undue  pain  and  trouble,  and 
thanks  to  an  intelligent  system  of  hygiene,  to 
exceed  the  tale  of  years  normally  allotted  to  man. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  that  the  law  of 
heredity,  which  in  a  general  way  ensures  the  trans- 
mission of  good  and  evil  tendencies,  is  only  a 
particular  instance  of  the  still  more  comprehensive 
law  of  solidarity. 


no  ^A^  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Objection : — "  Nature  is  cruel,  because  she  makes  even 
animals  suffer." 

Answer : — It  is  true  we  often  find  ourselves 
pitying  the  fate  of  certain  animals  that  are  sur- 
rounded by  enemies  and  must  therefore,  as  we 
imagine,  live  in  a  continual  state  of  alarm  while 
they  await  the  fatal  moment  when  a  tragic  death 
will  put  an  end  to  their  manifold  terrors.  We 
picture  to  ourselves  a  final  struggle  in  which  some 
wild  beast,  a  lion  or  a  tiger,  will  crush  the  bones 
and  rend  the  flesh  of  the  unhappy  victim  with  its 
formidable  teeth  and  claws. 

Let  us  test  the  truth  of  this  picture,  taking  the 
lion  as  our  example. 

To  begin  with,  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that 
no  struggle  takes  place.  The  lion  springs  on  his 
prey  and  breaks  its  neck  or  its  back  with  a  single 
blow  of  his  mighty  paw.  This  is  done  with  the 
rapidity  of  lightning,  and  we  may  say  without 
exaggeration  that  the  peacefully  browsing  animal 
has  ceased  to  live  before  it  is  aware  of  its  danger.^ 
Furthermore,  even  if  the  victim  is  not  killed  on 
the  spot,  it  will  certainly  feel  neither  pain  nor 
fear.  In  reply  to  this  assertion  it  may  be  said 
that  we  are  not  sufficiently  acquainted  with  the 
mental  processes  of  the  herbivora  to  know  what 
their  sensations  are  at  that  moment,  and  that  our 

1  We  shall  be  asked  :  "  How  about  the  cat  which  plays  with  a 
mouse  before  killing  it  ?  "  The  best  way  to  study  animals  is 
to  observe  them  in  their  wild  state.  The  cat  is  well  fed  and 
therefore  in  no  hurry  to  devour  its  prey,  whereas  lions  and  tigers 
only  start  on  the  prowl  when  they  begin  to  feel  the  pangs  of 
hunger.  Hence  they  waste  no  time  in  playing  with  the  victim 
which  patience  and  exertion  have  brought  into  their  clutches. 
Should  they  do  so,  however  (as  is  sometimes  the  case  when  a 
lesson  in  the  art  of  hunting  has  to  be  given  to  their  cubs),  the 
victim  is  still  free  from  suffering,  as  we  shall  see  a  few  lines 
further  on. 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  iii 

statements  are  consequently  of  no  value.  We 
cannot,  it  is  true,  transport  ourselves  into  the  mind 
of  the  victim,  but  we  know  from  trustworthy 
sources  what  the  sensations  of  a  human  being  are 
under  similar  circumstances. 

And  if  no  pain  or  terror  is  felt  by  a  civilised  man, 
whose  nerves  are  extremely  sensitive,  when  situated 
as  Livingstone  was,  for  example,  we  can  surely 
assume  that  any  kind  of  animal  must  also,  at  such 
a  moment,  be  quite  insensible  to  fear  and  pain. 
These  are  Livingstone's  own  words  :**...!  heard 
a  shout,  and  looking  half  round,  I  saw  the  lion  in 
the  act  of  springing  upon  me.  He  caught  me  by 
the  shoulder,  and  we  both  came  to  the  ground 
together.  Growling  horribly,  he  shook  me  as  a 
terrier  dog  does  a  rat.  The  shock  produced  a  stupor 
similar  to  that  which  seems  to  be  felt  by  a  mouse 
after  the  first  grip  of  the  cat.  It  caused  a  sort  of 
dreaminess,  in  which  there  was  no  sense  of  pain 
nor  feeling  of  terror,  though  I  was  quite  conscious 
of  all  that  was  happening.  .  .  .  This  peculiar  state 
is  probably  produced  in  all  animals  killed  by 
the  carnivora."  {Missionary  Travels  and  Researches 
in  South  Africa.) 

Mr  J.  Hirst  in  his  pamphlet  Is  Nature  Cruel? 
(Clark  &  Co.,  London)  gives  a  list  of  sixty-six  cases 
in  which  persons  have  been  mauled  by  lions,  tigers, 
leopards,  and  bears.  Out  of  these  sixty-six  persons, 
only  one  was  afraid,  and  only  two  (for  reasons  ex- 
plained in  the  footnote  ^)  had  any  sensation  of  pain 

^  Only  one  of  the  victims  (a  tamer  employed  in  Carl  Hagen- 
beck's  menagerie)  stated  that  he  experienced  a  sense  of  fear  when 
attacked  by  the  lion  whose  cage  he  had  entered.  And,  more- 
over, this  feeling  did  not  manifest  itself  at  the  outset,  but  only 
when  he  was  grappling  with  the  animal  for  the  second  and  third 
time.  Two  others  said  that  they  had  a  feeling  of  pain.  But 
it  should  be  observed  that  in  one  of  these  cases  the  female  leopard 


112  AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

during  their  desperate  encounter  ;  as  for  the  other 
sixty-three,  on  their  own  repeated  testimony, 
strange  though  it  may  appear,  they  felt  neither 
pain  nor  alarm  while  the  brute  was  crushing  their 
bones  or  burying  his  teeth  and  claws  in  their 
flesh. 

In  these  and  other  similar  cases,  the  wound  only 
becomes  painful  some  time  after  it  has  been 
inflicted. 

We  appeal  to  the  experience  of  all  big-game 
hunters  :  those  of  them  who  have  ever  been  mauled 
by  powerful  brutes  will  assuredly  confirm  our  state- 
ment. It  follows  that  if  death  supervenes  during 
the  encounter,  as  generally  happens  when  the  victim 
is  an  herbivorous  animal,  it  must  come  without 
suffering. 

Let  us  note,  by  the  way,  that  the  claws  and  teeth 
of  flesh-eating  beasts  are  constructed  in  such  a  way 
that  it  is  practically  impossible  for  their  prey,  once 
caught,  to  get  away  again.  This  is  all  to  the  good, 
for  a  wounded  animal  might  suffer  long  and  to  no 
purpose. 

"N^Tiat  we  have  just  said  applies  to  all  carnivora 
without  distinction  of  size.  In  every  case  the 
death  they  inflict  is  swift  and  sure,  because  they 
are  careful  only  to  attack  animals  which  cannot 
offer  any  serious  resistance.     Thus  the  weasel,  for 

which  inflicted  the  injury  was  so  enfeebled  by  loss  of  blood  that 
she  was  unable  to  attack  as  vigorously  as  she  would  have  done 
had  she  been  unwounded.  A  wound  is  only  painful  when  in- 
flicted slowly.  In  the  second  case,  the  hunter  was  thrown  oS 
his  feet  by  a  tigress  and  rolled  down  a  gully.  He  was  bitten  in 
the  back  of  his  neck,  but  not  mortally,  as  the  tigress  was  dis- 
concerted by  his  tumbling  down  the  slope.  This  animal  was  also 
very  old,  and  relatively  weak  in  consequence.  Old  lions  and 
tigers  are  conscious  of  their  infirmity,  and  therefore,  unless  they 
are  brought  to  bay,  they  only  attack  victims  that  they  can  easily 
kill  :   sheep,  lambs,  children,  or  unarmed  Hindoos. 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  113 

example,  preys  on  moles,  rabbits,  small  birds,  and 
poultry,  and  the  owl  on  rats  and  field-mice. 

It  may  be  confidently  asserted,  then,  that  when 
one  animal  falls  a  prey  to  another,  its  death  is 
unattended  by  suffering.  And,  indeed,  we  might 
have  guessed  as  much,  seeing  that  Nature  never 
inflicts  more  than  the  necessary  minimum  of  pain. 
A  hunted  animal  is  possessed  with  fear  to  the  end 
that  it  may  make  an  effort  to  escape ;  but  as  soon 
as  it  has  been  caught  and  death  is  inevitable,  fear 
ceases  because  it  serves  no  further  purpose. 

It  has  been  well  said  by  A.  Fouillee  that  "  the 
development  of  particular  sensations  out  of  an 
enormous  number  of  possible  ones  is  biological  in 
its  origin  and  governed  by  a  biological  law  :  useful- 
ness for  the  purposes  of  life."  To  this  we  may  add 
that  when  a  sensation  (fear  in  the  present  case) 
ceases  to  be  useful  for  the  purposes  of  life,  it 
disappears. 

Again,  we  may  say  that,  in  general,  as  there  is  no 
knowledge  of  what  is  going  to  take  place,  anti- 
cipatory fears  do  not  exist ;  for,  with  the  exception 
of  wolves,  the  carnivora  wait  in  hiding-places  or 
follow  their  victims  stealthily,  taking  care  not  to 
startle  them,  for  fear  they  should  run  away,  and 
only  showing  themselves  when  they  can  reach  their 
prey  at  a  single  bound. 

Consequently,  we  must  not  imagine  that  animals 
are  in  a  constant  state  of  terror  at  the  "  thought " 
of  the  danger  they  are  running  or  have  run. 

Mr  Roosevelt,  the  ex-President  of  the  United 
States,  in  one  of  the  letters  he  wrote  to  the  London 
Daily  Telegraph  during  his  hunting  expeditions  in 
Africa  in  1910,  expressed  astonishment  at  the 
rapidity  with  which  animals  forget  the  danger 
which  has  just  threatened  them.     He  was  surprised 

8 


114  ^N  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

to  see  that  zebras,  etc.,  began  to  graze  again  the 
very  minute  the  danger  was  over,  and  that  two 
males  resumed  their  fight  immediately  after  they 
had  run  away  from  a  lion  which  had  killed  one  of 
the  herd  to  which  they  themselves  belonged. 

Here  is  another  observed  fact : — Birds  of  prey  of 
the  falcon  species  are  very  numerous  in  the  tropics. 
It  often  happens,  when  the  sun  is  just  about  to  set, 
that  a  falcon  settles  on  the  branch  of  a  tree  where  a 
number  of  small  birds  are  singing  happily.  After 
keeping  quite  still  for  some  time  so  as  not  to  give 
the  alarm,  the  hungry  robber  pounces  upon  one  of 
the  songsters  and  carries  it  off.  The  unlucky  bird's 
companions  flee  in  all  directions  and  for  a  few 
moments  show  every  sign  of  terror.  But  very  soon 
they  flock  together  again  and  resume  not  only 
their  songs  and  their  twittering,  but  even  the  little 
quarrels  that  break  out  from  time  to  time.  The 
life  of  the  survivors  starts  afresh,  or  rather  goes  on 
as  before,  just  as  though  nothing  unusual  had 
happened. 

In  the  Journal  of  the  Bombay  Natural  History 
Society,  vol.  vi.,  Mr  J.  D.  Inverarity  tells  us 
that  one  day  in  Somaliland  he  tethered  a  donkey 
to  a  large  stone  fixed  in  the  ground,  meaning  it  to 
serve  as  bait  for  a  lion  he  wanted  to  entice  to  the 
spot.  The  lion  came — but  at  a  moment  when  the 
hunter  happened  to  be  absent ;  it  clawed  the  donkey, 
and  then,  being  disturbed,  made  off.  Yet  only  a 
few  minutes  after  its  visit  the  donkey  was  found 
quietly  grazing. 

In  Allanson  Picton's  Religion  of  the  Universe  our 
attention  is  drawn  to  a  somewhat  similar  fact. 
The  author  says  :  "A  familiar  sight  in  mountain 
pastures  helps  to  confirm  our  consolatory  faith. 
For  there,  a  lean  and  scraggy  but  active  sheep  will 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  115 

occasionally  be  chased  by  a  strange  dog,  and  will 
fly  for  its  life  with  every  sign  of  consternation. 
Inferior  to  its  pursuer  in  fleetness,  it  makes  for 
rough  crags  which  habit  suggests  as  a  place  of 
safety.  But  the  dog  has  not  the  least  objection 
to  stone  or  crag,  and  springs  from  ledge  to  ledge 
even  more  lightly  than  the  apparently  desperate 
sheep.  At  last,  in  seeming  distraction,  the  pursued 
animal  fails  in  its  spring,  and  rolls  down  a  short, 
smooth  slope  of  rock  on  to  a  cushion  of  greensward 
below.  A  whistle  is  heard,  the  dog  desists  from 
the  chase  ;  and  when  you  look  to  see  the  hunted, 
terrified  creature  lying  in  a  breathless  swoon,  you 
observe  it  standing  with  its  nose  in  the  grass  and 
munching  the  herbage  placidly  as  though  nothing 
had  happened.  There  has  been  no  interval  for 
panting  recovery,  for  soothing  of  shattered  nerves, 
or  revival  of  appetite.  But  the  moment  the  dog 
turned  away,  down  went  the  mouth  into  the  herbage, 
and  the  delight  of  eating  was  resumed.  In  such 
a  case,  of  course,  it  is  undeniable  that  there  must 
have  been  some  fear  and  some  arduous  struggle  to 
escape.  But  to  exaggerate  this  into  the  sort  of 
mental  pain  and  exhaustion  of  nerve  which  human 
beings  suffer  through  terror  is  absurd." 

The  animal,  then,  feels  only  the  minimum  of 
fear,  and  that  for  no  longer  than  is  absolutely 
necessary  in  order  that  it  may  be  able  to  reach  a 
place  of  safety,  when  such  is  available. 

Again,  we  are  told  that  animals,  and  more 
especially  birds,  suffer  so  much  from  cold  during 
severe  winters  that  they  often  perish.  But  freezing 
to  death,  as  all  travellers  know  who  have  experi- 
enced very  low  temperatures,  is  of  all  forms  of 
death  one  of  the  least  painful.  One  is  irresistibly 
overcome  by  a  deep  slumber,  and  unless  help  arrives 


tt6  an  ethical   system 

promptly,  the  sleeper  wakes  no  more  and  dies 
without  pain,  without  even  being  conscious  of  his 
fate.     The  same  is  true  of  birds. 


We  must  not  forget  to  say  a  few  words  about 
pain  in  relation  to  insects.  Readers  of  the  works 
of  J.  H.  Fabre,  for  example,  must  have  been  struck 
by  the  fact  that  the  males  are  frequently  killed  by 
the  females  at  the  close  of  the  pairing  season. 

Having  placed  twenty  male  and  five  female 
golden  beetles  in  his  "  aviary,"  Fabre  saw  the  whole 
number  of  males  disappear  within  six  weeks.  The 
females  had  deliberately  eaten  their  mates.  But 
the  remarkable  part  is  that  the  males  had  not 
retaliated  nor  defended  themselves  by  returning 
bite  for  bite,  although,  as  Fabre  very  truly  observes, 
their  strength  would  have  enabled  them  to  fight 
a  battle  which  might  have  turned  in  their  favour  ; 
instead  of  this,  the  foolish  creatures  had  allowed 
themselves  to  be  devoured  with  impunity  !  In  all 
cases  of  this  kind,  it  seems  as  if  some  invincible 
repugnance  prevents  the  males  from  offering  any 
resistance.  This  incomprehensible  degree  of  toler- 
ance recalls  the  scorpion  of  the  Languedoc,  who, 
after  the  consummation  of  his  nuptials,  allows 
himself  to  be  eaten  up  by  his  worthy  partner  without 
having  recourse  to  the  deadly  sting  which  could 
easily  dispose  of  her.  We  are  also  reminded  of 
the  praying-mantis,  which  is  sometimes  devoured 
piecemeal.  The  female  mantis  quietly  nibbles  away 
at  her  spouse,  beginning  with  his  head,  whilst  the 
latter  continues  to  give  proof  of  his  affection,  as  if 
nothing  were  happening,  until  at  last  he  dies,  a 
mere  headless  trunk. 

The  above  affords  certain  proof  that  insects  are 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  117 

not  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  vertebrates, 
and  that  there  are  times  when  the  male  insect 
becomes  insensible  to  pain.  The  best  confirmation 
of  this  view  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  male  could 
escape  if  he  wished,  at  any  rate  at  the  beginning  of 
the  attack.  In  any  case  he  might  defend  himself 
and  make  a  fight  of  it ;  were  he  suffering,  he  would 
certainly  do  so,  if  only  by  the  force  of  reflex  action. 
But  as  it  is,  he  calmly  lets  himself  be  eaten  as  though 
it  were  to  him  a  matter  of  perfect  indifference  ; 
and,  if  we  may  judge  of  sensations  by  the  actions 
they  evoke,  we  must  admit  that  this  is  really  the 
truth,  and  that  here  again,  whatever  the  appear- 
ances may  be,  no  pain  is  actually  felt. 

But  how  is  it,  some  one  may  ask,  that  the  males 
never  try  to  devour  the  females  ?  Simply  because 
it  is  essential  that  the  females  should  live  in  order 
to  mature  their  eggs  and  find  a  suitable  place  in 
which  to  deposit  them.  In  certain  species,  the 
mother  even  has  to  build  or  excavate  a  nursery 
large  enough  for  her  babies  to  live  in  with  comfort. 
The  dwelling  must  also  be  stored  with  a  particular 
kind  of  food  which  has  to  be  fetched  from  a  distance. 
All  this  requires  time.  If  the  mother  were  killed, 
then,  immediately  after  her  union,  the  race  would 
infallibly  die  out,  whereas  it  is  Nature's  funda- 
mental axiom  that  every  species  shall  do  its  utmost 
to  continue  its  own  existence. 

The  males,  on  the  contrary,  being  of  no  further 

use  when  once  they  have   transmitted   the   vital 

spark,  may  well  be  allowed  to  die,  and  this  they  do 

without  suffering. 

*  *  m 

On  the  whole,  then,  very  little  physical  pain  is 
felt  by  animals ;  they  only  suffer  when  brought 
under  the  yoke  of  man  :    draught-horses  subjected 


ii8  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

to  the  whip  and  badly  fed,  animals  conveyed  to  the 
slaughter-house,  when  the  weather  is  very  hot,  in 
trucks  where  they  can  get  nothing  to  drink  ;  poultry 
packed  so  tightly  in  baskets  that  they  can  hardly 
move  (on  market  days  the  poor  things  are  cooped 
up  thus  for  hours  at  a  time  without  food  or  water)  ; 
game  of  all  sorts  with  wounds  inflicted  by  sports- 
men enjoying  the  pleasures  (!)  of  the  chase  ; — birds 
or  quadrupeds,  these  wretched  creatures  before 
they  die  often  linger  on  for  days  in  an  out-of-the- 
way  corner  of  the  field  or  forest,  with  lacerated 
flesh  and  tormented  by  the  terrible  thirst  that  is 
caused  by  severe  wounds.  (Do  hunters  or  sports- 
men ever  give  a  thought  to  this  suffering  ?) 


It  may  also  be  asked  if  **  mental  pain  "  is  not 
experienced  by  non-domesticated  animals. 

In  the  first  place,  we  can  state  positively  that 
they  do  not  suffer  by  anticipation.  They  are  not 
troubled,  for  instance,  by  the  thought  of  death, 
nor  do  they  create  for  themselves  imaginary  ills. 
They  have  no  dread  of  sickness,  and  suffer  very 
few  disappointments,  for  they  only  desire  things 
that  they  can  easily  obtain.  Unlike  so  many  human 
beings,  they  are  never  afraid  of  being  reduced  to 
destitution  by  want  of  employment,  or  of  seeing 
their  savings  swallowed  up  in  some  financial  dis- 
aster.    Thus  they  are  free  from  all  anxiety. 

There  are  quarrels  now  and  then,  it  is  true  (as 
among  sparrows,  for  example),  but  such  petty 
conflicts  are  neither  protracted  nor  dangerous,  for 
the  weaker  party  soon  acknowledges  his  inferiority 
by  quitting  the  fray. 

The  only  mental  discomfort  to  which  animals  are 
subject — and  even  this  is  only  experienced  by  the 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  119 

males — is  the  angry  emotion  aroused  by  jealousy. 
Every  male  wishes  to  retain  sole  possession  of  his 
own  female  or  females,  and  is  irritated  by  the 
sight  of  a  rival.  Then  will  ensue  a  battle-royal,  or 
we  should  rather  say  a  trial  of  strength,  for  it  is 
a  rule  faithfully  observed  by  animals,  when  two 
males  fight  for  the  possession  of  a  female,  that 
neither  of  them  shall  be  killed.  As  soon  as  the 
weaker  of  the  two  recognises  his  inability  to  conquer, 
he  prudently  withdraws.  The  other  does  not  abuse 
his  victory  by  pursuing  his  rival,  but  allows  him 
to  retire  in  peace. ^ 

Thus  it  is  that  wild  horses,  camels,  etc.,  bite  their 
adversaries  but  refrain  from  kicking  them  with 
their  formidable  hoofs.  Rabbits  and  hares  leave 
behind  them  on  the  field  of  battle  not  corpses,  but 
only  tufts  of  hair.  Rams,  stags,  antelopes,  etc., 
butt  one  another,  often  with  much  clashing  of  horns, 
but  never  use  the  sharp  points.  The  oryx  (also 
called  sabre  antelopes  on  account  of  their  long, 
straight  horns  tapering  to  a  point)  rush  at  each 
other  with  heads  down  and  meet  with  a  loud  crash. 
Each  tries  to  push  the  other  back,  then  they 
separate  and  begin  again,  until  one  or  the  other 
leaves  his  rival  in  possession  of  the  field.  Neither 
of  them  makes  use  of  his  horns  ;  these  are  formid- 
able weapons  with  which  they  can  dangerously 
wound,  and  even  kill,  the  lions  that  attack  them. 

Here  again  we  find  only  the  minimum  of  pain. 

That  the  combatants,  in  spite  of  their  furious 
jealousy,  do  not  fight  to  the  death,  is  to  the  advan- 
tage of  the  race.  If  the  two  rivals  really  tried  to 
kill  each  other,  even  the  victor  would  in  most  cases 

^  An  exception,  however,  must  be  made  in  the  case  of  salmon, 
which  attack  and  kill  each  other,  not  for  the  privilege  of  possess- 
ing the  females,  but  for  that  of  fertilising  the  eggs. 


120  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

be  grievously  wounded,  that  is  to  say,  physically 
weakened  at  the  very  moment  when  it  is  essential 
that  he  should  be  in  the  best  of  condition  in  order 
to  transmit  health  and  strength  to  his  posterity. 
The  chivalrous  encounter  and  the  ensuing  triumph, 
so  far  from  weakening  the  conqueror,  only  serve 
to  enhance  his  might. 

Another  consideration  is  that  the  fighters  very 
often  happen  to  be  a  male  in  the  plenitude  of  his 
strength  and  another  much  younger  animal.  Were 
the  latter  to  be  killed,  the  race  would  undoubtedly 
suffer  ;  but,  in  fact,  he  is  only  kept  away  from  the 
females  for  a  season,  that  is,  until  he  has  grown 
strong  and  clever  enough  to  conquer  in  his  turn 
and  thus  deserve  the  guerdon  of  paternity. 

This  feeling  of  jealousy  and  anger,  leading  as 
it  does  to  a  struggle  in  which  victory  goes  to  the 
one  who  is  superior  in  strength,  energy,  and  in- 
telligence, is  in  truth  a  great  blessing  for  the  race, 
since  it  tends  to  implant  these  selfsame  qualities 
in  the  new  generation. 


An  ornithologist  writing  on  the  subject  of  animal 
suffering  tells  us  that  he  saw  a  pair  of  birds  in  a 
cage,  whose  young  ones  had  been  killed  by  a  cat, 
lamenting  for  the  space  of  two  days,  and  he  asks  : 
*'  Is  not  Nature  cruel  to  cause  such  anguish  to 
parents  ?  "  Now,  it  is  evident  that  maternal  love, 
with  all  the  tender  care  it  lavishes  on  its  object,  is 
indispensable  to  the  life  of  young  birds.  And,  that 
being  so,  it  is  impossible  that  their  untimely  end 
should  not  cause  suffering  to  the  parents.  The 
only  way  to  prevent  this  suffering  would  be  for 
them  to  have  no  love  for  their  children  ;  but  in 
that  case,  as  we  have  just  said,  the  latter  could 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  121 

not  survive.  Moreover,  in  the  present  instance, 
the  parent  birds  were  caged,  which  means  that  they 
were  not  obHged  to  procure  their  own  food  ;  hence 
their  grief,  having  nothing  whatever  to  divert  it, 
was  able  to  continue  for  two  days.  In  a  state  of 
freedom,  and  obHged  to  work  for  their  sustenance, 
the  birds  would  have  forgotten  their  loss  much 
sooner,  for  work  is  an  excellent  antidote  to  all  kinds 
of  sorrow  in  the  case  of  animals  as  well  as  man. 


Let  us  now  turn  to  consider  the  enjoyments 
open  to  animals  living  in  a  free  state.  In  the  first 
place,  their  birth  coincides  with  the  season  of  the 
year  in  which  the  food  that  suits  them  is  most 
abundant.  The  mating  season  is  fixed  with  this 
object  in  view,  and  it  varies  therefore  according  to 
species  and  country.  In  Europe,  for  the  majority 
of  birds,  it  falls  in  the  spring  and  summer  time  ; 
in  autumn  for  pachyderms,  ruminants,  and  bats  ; 
towards  the  beginning  of  winter  for  rodents  ;  and 
during  the  winter  for  carnivora  (with  the  exception 
of  bears).  The  "  muscardin  "  ^  breeds  in  August, 
when  the  nuts  are  ripening. 

As  soon  as  it  is  born,  whatever  species  it  belongs 
to,  the  young  animal  is  tended  by  its  parents  with 
the  usual  care,  and  quickly  attains  its  mil  strength. 
If  an  herbivorous  animal,  its  life  will  be  spent  in 
grazing,  resting,  sleeping,  fleeing  on  the  approach 
of  an  enemy,  propagating  its  species  at  certain 
secLsons  of  the  year,  and  afterwards  in  feeding  and 
protecting  its  young.  Finally,  long  before  the  ad- 
vent of  old  age,  it  succumbs  to  a  quick  and  pain- 
less death.  Or  if  by  chance  the  animal  has  lived 
long  enough  to  feel  the  infirmities  of  age,  a  day  will 

^  A  kind  of  small  dormouse  living  chiefly  on  nuts. 


122  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

come  when,  no  longer  able  to  keep  up  with  its 
companions,  it  is  swiftly  despatched  by  one  of  the 
carnivora  that  are  not  bold  enough  to  seek  their 
prey  amidst  the  herd  and  yet  sufficiently  strong  to 
attack  an  animal  enfeebled  by  years. 

If  it  is  a  carnivorous  beast  that  we  have  to  deal 
with,  we  shall  find  that  its  mode  of  life  is  undoubt- 
edly more  enjoyable  because  it  is  fuller  of  variety. 
The  flesh-eater  has  to  discover,  catch,  and  kill  its 
prey.  These  operations  require  a  great  deal  of 
cunning,  keen  powers  of  observation,  and  inexhaust- 
ible patience ;  afterwards,  at  a  given  moment, 
promptness  of  decision  combined  with  rapid  and 
well-timed  movements  of  the  body. 

Hunting  probably  has  a  peculiar  fascination  for 
the  wild  beast.  Even  among  ourselves  there  are 
individuals  of  atavistic  tendencies  who  will  gladly 
undergo  severe  fatigue,  brave  all  weathers,  and 
submit  to  a  thousand  discomforts  for  the  sheer 
pleasure  which  they  find  in  the  chase  ;  and  some- 
times, when  it  is  a  question  of  killing  lions,  tigers, 
or  elephants,  they  expose  themselves  to  very  real 
dangers. 

The  joy  experienced  by  hunters  is  certainly 
shared  by  all  carnivora,  whose  business  it  is  like- 
wise to  engage  in  the  pursuit  of  their  prey. 

The  wild  animal  has  the  further  pleasure  of 
seeking  out  a  mate  and  rearing  a  family.  It  is 
true  that  this  imposes  new  obligations  on  him  :  he 
will  have  to  spend  more  of  his  strength  in  hunting 
than  before,  in  order  to  feed  all  the  mouths  depend- 
ent on  him.  These  obligations  appear,  neverthe- 
less, to  be  thoroughly  agreeable  to  him,  if  one  may 
judge  by  the  signs  of  satisfaction  with  which  he 
brings  home  the  freshly-killed  game  before  touching 
it  himself. 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  123 

For  the  matter  of  that,  enjoyment  of  life  is 
transparently  visible  in  all  animals  in  the  free  state, 
whether  their  food  be  grass,  flesh,  fruit,  or  insects. 
Even  the  hare,  said  to  be  the  most  timorous  of 
creatures,  is  really  very  lively  and  gay.  In  its  own 
particular  meadow  or  ploughed  field  it  enjoys  itself 
quite  openly,  showing  no  trace  of  anxiety.  It 
gambols,  frisks,  scurries  about,  and  turns  somer- 
saults. Every  one  of  its  movements  is  clearly 
the  outcome  of  high  spirits  and  lightheartedness. 

Sheer  enjoyment  of  life  also  moves  many  birds 
to  warble  and  sing  at  other  times  than  the  pairing 
season. 

But  it  is  in  young  animals  that  this  gladsome- 
ness  is  most  patent  to  the  eye,  and  it  nearly  always 
manifests  itself  in  exuberant  fashion  by  great 
vivacity  of  movement :  so  in  badgers,  deer,  buffalo, 
tapirs,  lambs,  colts,  gazelles,  kittens,  puppies, 
pumas,  foxes,  lion-cubs,  weasels,  monkeys,  bear- 
cubs,  wolf-cubs,  martens,  kids,  marmots,  squirrels, 
seals,  all  kinds  of  birds,  etc. 

Another  point  we  may  mention  is  that  the  games 
in  which  young  animals  indulge,  besides  being  now 
the  effect,  now  the  cause  of  their  gladness  (they  play 
because  they  are  happy,  and  are  happy  because 
they  play),  also  accustom  them  to  make  the  swift, 
well-judged,  and  perfectly  correlated  movements 
which  will  be  so  useful  to  them  later  on  in  attack 
or  defence,  and  in  providing  for  their  own  needs. 


To  sum  up,  then,  it  would  appear  that  non- 
domesticated  animals  spend  a  happy  life,  and  die 
for  the  most  part  without  pain.  If  this  is  so,  the 
struggle  for  existence,  so  far  from  subjecting  animals 
to  cruel  and  almost  uninterrupted  suffering,  actually 


124  ^^  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

secures  for  them,  as  Russel  Wallace  points  out,  the 
maximum  of  pleasure  compatible  with  their  physical 
and  mental  organisation  ;  for  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that,  given  health  and  strength,  the  mere 
fact  of  being  alive  constitutes  happiness. 

This  was  assuredly  in  Darwin's  mind  when  he 
wrote  :  "  When  we  reflect  on  this  struggle  [for  life], 
we  may  console  ourselves  with  the  full  belief  that 
the  war  of  Nature  is  not  incessant,  that  no  fear  is 
felt,  that  death  is  generally  prompt,  and  that  the 
vigorous,  the  healthy,  and  the  happy  survive  and 

multiply." 

*  *  * 

With  regard  to  man,  it  may  be  said  that,  while 
his  feelings  of  pleasure  are  more  varied,  more  intense, 
and  of  a  nobler  type  than  those  of  animals,  the 
pains  that  he  undergoes  have  been,  so  far,  both 
more  numerous  and  more  searching. 

As  far  as  occasional  physical  pain  is  concerned, 
however,  it  should  be  added  that  the  recollection 
of  past  suffering  fades  very  rapidly.  A  short  time 
after  the  extraction  of  a  tooth,  we  are  hardly  able 
to  recall  the  exact  sensation  we  experienced — and, 
in  order  to  do  so  at  all,  we  are  obliged  to  picture 
ourselves  seated  in  the  well-known  chair  with 
the  dentist  and  his  instruments  at  our  elbow. 
Without  this  effort  of  the  imagination,  all  we 
remember  is  that  the  operation  hurt  us,  and 
that  is  all.  So  in  the  case  of  a  broken  arm  or 
leg,  or  after  severe  labour  at  childbirth.  No 
sooner  has  the  child  been  born  than  the  mother 
forgets  her  sufferings,  and  as  a  rule  has  no  little 
difficulty  in  recalling  them  to  her  mind  with  any 
distinctness.  In  every  case,  indeed,  the  recollection 
of  physical  pain,  however  severe,  quickly  loses  all 
its  sharpness. 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  125 

Nevertheless,  it  is  true  that  man  at  the  present 
day  does  still  suffer  in  body,  heart,  and  mind. 

If  we  try  to  ascertain  the  chief  causes  of  his  many 
pains  and  griefs,  we  shall  find  that  they  are  manifold. 
For  example  :  the  necessity  which  exists  for  many 
(but  which  must  surely  disappear  in  course  of  time) 
of  living  in  an  unhealthy  environment,  be  it  physical 
mental,  or  moral ;  the  vicious  taints  of  every 
description  transmitted  by  "  heedless  "  parents ; 
the  restriction  of  free  individual  development 
due  to  iniquitous  laws  ;  the  truly  curious  habit 
of  mind  which  causes  a  man  to  suffer  in  anticipa- 
tion from  a  thousand  ills  which  may  never  come  to 
pass.  Add  to  all  this  the  fact  that  man  suffers 
through  his  rebellious  instincts,  because  he  cannot 
yet  realise  how  grand  and  fine  and  noble  it  is  to 
submit  unreservedly  and  of  his  own  free  will  to 
the  decrees  of  Nature. 

But  the  most  potent  cause  of  all  appears  to  be 
egoism  and  the  lack  of  true  brotherhood  which  com- 
pel each  man  to  bear  his  burden  alone.  And  with 
many  people  there  is  superadded  the  more  or  less 
intermittent,  yet  sometimes  very  lively,  fear  of  death. 

For  our  own  part,  we  firmly  believe  that  by  and 
by,  when  man  comes  to  understand  and  love  Nature 
better,  he  will  try  to  live  in  perfect  harmony  with 
the  laws  of  this  benevolent  mother,  and  will  then 
accept  death  without  repining,  because  he  frankly 
approves  and  welcomes  the  enforcement  of  the 
primordial  law  which  decrees  that  the  individual 
shall  disappear  in  the  interests  of  the  whole. 

And,  in  general,  he  will  be  much  happier  and  less 
inclined  to  bemoan  his  fate  when  he  has  convinced 
himself  that  there  is  nothing  arbitrary  about 
Nature — that  everything,  on  the  contrary,  is 
governed   by   fixed   laws   which   spring   from   the 


126  AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

irresistible  quality  inherent  in  the  constitution  of 
things,  and  which  are  supremely  just  in  that  they 
exact  obedience  from  all,  impartially  and  without 
exception,  in  the  interests  of  the  universe  as  a  whole. 
*  *  * 

Objection  : — "  Natuie  is  cruel  because,  to  attain  her  ends, 
she  has  had  recourse,  and  continues  to  have  recourse,  to 
the  struggle  for  existence,  which  necessarily  involves  the 
extinction  of  the  less  fit." 

Answer  : — The  people  who  speak  or  think  in  this 
way  surely  forget  that  they  themselves  act  just  as 
Nature  does. 

When  we  want  to  engage  a  clerk,  a  workman, 
a  domestic  servant,  or  any  other  kind  of  assistant, 
do  we  not  choose,  among  those  who  apply  for  the 
post,  the  one  who  seems  superior  to  the  rest  ? 
We  decline  to  employ  people  whose  ignorance, 
laziness,  ill-health,  unwilling  temper,  or  other 
mental  and  physical  defects  would  prevent  them 
from  rendering  us  the  services  we  require. 

What  literary  man  would  appoint  as  his  private 
secretary  a  young  fellow  hardly  able  to  read  and 
write  ?  What  bandmaster  would  engage  a  one- 
armed  man  to  be  his  first  flute-player  ?  What 
mother  would  entrust  her  baby  to  the  charge  of  a 
brutal,  violent-tempered  nurse,  addicted  to  drink  ? 
Where  is  the  banker  who  would  congratulate 
himself  on  having  as  his  head  cashier  a  man  con- 
victed several  times  of  dishonesty  ?  Who,  wishing 
to  sit  down,  would  insist  on  having  a  rickety  chair 
with  weak  legs  ?  Which  of  us,  having  an  urgent 
and  important  letter  to  write,  would  select  a 
spluttering  pen  ?  And  when  we  buy  a  horse,  what 
care  do  we  not  take  to  acquire  an  animal  that  is 
sound  in  wind  and  limb. 

Is  it  not  obvious  that  man  is  always  and  every- 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  127 

where  in  the  habit  of  making  a  careful  selection 
amongst  things,  animals,  and  people,  asking  the 
superior  ones  for  their  co-operation  and  rejecting 
the  inferior  ones,  or  at  least  those  that  he  thinks 
so  ?  We  want  our  work  to  be  done  well,  and  there- 
fore decline  the  services  of  inferior  or  unsuitable 
assistants.  Why,  then,  do  we  abuse  Nature  so 
roundly  because  she  does  exactly  what  we  do  our 
ourselves  ? 

In  fact,  men  and  Nature  reason  and  act  in  the 
same  way,  because,  man  being  an  integral  part 
of  the  Whole,  Nature  and  he  have  necessarily  the 
same  kind  of  intelligence,  and  consequently  are 
led  to  solve  problems  in  the  same  way,  and  to 
overcome  difficulties  by  identical  means. 

Nature  sacrifices  the  inferior,  it  is  true,  but  only 
for  the  general  good  and  with  the  minimum  accom- 
paniment of  suffering.  She  carefully  selects  her 
assistants  so  that  her  work  may  be  well  done,  that 
is  to  say,  to  the  sole  end  that  life  may  be  manifested 
in  all  its  beauty,  power,  and  intelligence. 

Could  she  achieve  this  result  by  resorting  to  any 
other  means  ?     Obviously  not. 

To  tell  the  truth,  Nature  does  not  demand  the 
extirpation  of  the  weak  ;  that  is  not  her  object. 
What  she  does  insist  upon  is  the  continuance  of 
life  that  is  vigorous  and  intelligent.  If  the  unfit 
disappear,  it  is  only  as  an  indirect  consequence, 
so  to  speak,  and  because  there  is  really  no  other 
alternative. 


Objection: — "Certain  plants  are  poisonous,  and  the^man 
who  eats  of  such  plants  or  their  fruit  will  sicken  or  die. 
The  bite  of  many  snakes  is  fatal,  and  so  are,  in  many  cases, 
the  wounds  inflicted  by  lions,  tigers,  and  other  wild"  beasts. 
Is  not  this  a  proof  that  Nature  is  sometimes  an  enemy  to 
man  ?  " 


128  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Answer  : — Some  plants  are  poisonous  in  the  same 
way  that  other  plants  have  thorns,  not  for  the  sake 
of  injuring  man,  but  only  for  the  very  natural 
purpose  of  safeguarding  themselves  against  destruc- 
tion at  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  whoever  these 
may  be.  And  we  do  not  think  that  they  can  be 
blamed  for  this  precaution.  What  is  more  natural 
than  that  they  should  protect  themselves  against 
the  attacks  of  man  or  beast  ? 

At  the  same  time,  it  should  be  noted  that  the 
means  of  defence  is  always  proportionate  to  the 
strength  of  the  attack — a  fact  which  points  to  its 
being  a  measure  of  self-protection  only,  not  of 
aggression. 

It  is  true  that  the  nettle,  for  instance,  manufac- 
tures formic  acid,  which  is  stored  in  the  hairs 
covering  the  plant,  but  these  poisoned  hairs  are 
directed  against  its  bigger  foes  (such  as  the  herbi- 
vora),  which  might  be  tempted  to  make  a  meal  off 
its  leaves  and  stalk. 

In  order  to  keep  off  lesser  enemies,  such  as  snails 
and  slugs,  the  nettle  is  content  to  cover  its  surface 
with  smaller  hairs  growing  closely  together.  As 
these  tiny  hairs  form  in  themselves  a  sufficient 
barrier,  no  corrosive  liquid  is  secreted  in  them. 
The  plant  does  not  try  to  sting  or  to  burn  the  snails, 
but  is  content  if  it  can  keep  them  at  a  distance 
without  hurting  them  in  any  other  way. 

As  for  the  snake,  which  in  common  with  all 
living  things,  including  man,  has  the  instinct  of 
self-preservation,  it  produces  its  venom  only 
because  it  is  useful  as  a  means  of  defence  and  of 
obtaining  food.  (Moreover,  the  animals  on  which 
snakes  feed  are  for  the  most  part  so  small  as  to  be 
killed  very  swiftly  by  the  poison.) 

Although   the  numerous  species  of  the  animal 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  129 

kingdom  have  evolved  in  different  directions,  the 
object  of  the  evolution  has  always  been  to  enable 
each  animal  to  secure  more  easily  the  food  it 
requires,  to  escape  with  greater  certainty  from  its 
foes,  and  to  ensure  the  continuity  of  the  race. 

Thus  the  development  of  every  animal  and  vege- 
table species  has  been  for  its  own  advantage, 
and  nowise  in  order  to  subserve  the  well-being  of 
man,  to  supply  his  wants,  or  to  provide  him  with 
food. 

Nature  is  no  more  hostile  to  man  than  to  any 
other  living  thing.  So  far  from  being  his  enemy, 
has  she  not  developed  in  him  a  brain  superior  to 
that  of  every  other  animal,  thanks  to  which  he  has 
been  able  to  attain  his  pre-eminent  position  ? 

When  man  attacks  another  living  creature,  it 
is  the  right,  nay,  the  duty  of  the  latter  to  defend 
itself  as  best  it  can.  Or  are  we  to  say  that  lions  and 
tigers  must  meekly  allow  themselves  to  be  killed  ? 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  animal  itself  is 
the  attacking  party,  being  in  search  of  food.  What 
is  our  reply  to  this  ?  The  carnivora  attack  only 
in  order  to  live,  in  order  not  to  die  of  starvation, 
so  it  is  justifiable  warfare.  And,  as  we  have  seen, 
the  pain  inflicted  by  wild  beasts  on  their  prey  is 
extremely  slight,  if  indeed  it  can  be  felt  at  all. 


Objection  : — "  In  some  cases,  Nature  sets  us  a  bad  example 
(as  when  bees  kill  their  own  brethren,  the  drones).  By 
the  theory  of  morality,  based  on  the  laws  of  Nature,  are 
we  not  bound  to  follow  this  example  ?  " 

Answer  : — If  we  look  at  the  course  of  certain 
rivers  on  the  map — the  Danube,  Ganges,  Indus, 
Mississippi,  Seine,  Thames,  Tiber,  etc. — with  their 
sharp  bends  and  winding  curves,  we  shall  see  that 

9 


130  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

contradictory  opinions  as  to  the  direction  of  the 
stream  might  be  formed  by  local  observers  stationed 
at  different  points  along  its  banks.  One  would 
declare  that  the  river  was  flowing  north,  another 
would  be  equally  positive  that  it  was  flowing  south  ; 
some  would  feel  quite  sure  that  its  trend  was  towards 
the  east,  while  others,  again,  would  firmly  believe, 
on  the  testimony  of  their  own  eyes,  that  it  was 
making  straight  for  the  west.  Only  one  who  had 
studied  the  course  of  the  river  in  its  entirety  could 
gain  an  accurate  notion  of  its  general  direction. 

Or  again,  if  we  want  to  know  the  objective  of  an 
army  on  the  march,  we  should  not  follow  the  officers 
detailed  for  special  errands  and  each  going  in  a 
different  direction  ;  nor  should  we  follow  the  ambu- 
lance waggons  returning  to  the  rear  in  order  to 
discharge  their  wounded ;  but  we  should  take 
careful  note  of  the  direction  in  which  the  army  as 
a  whole  is  marching. 

So  with  regard  to  our  present  inquiry.  We  must 
be  guided,  not  by  a  few  isolated  facts,  the  signi- 
ficance of  which  we  are  not  always  able  to  grasp, 
but  by  the  general  tendency  observable  in  Nature. 
We  shall  then  see  that,  at  all  times  and  in  all  places, 
Nature's  desire  is  for  Life  in  its  most  vigorous  form. 

As  for  the  exceptional  case  of  the  drones,  the 
reason  alleged  for  their  slaughter  is  that  if  these 
males  (who  have  been  idle  all  the  summer)  were  to 
spend  the  winter  in  the  hive,  or  if  the  male  larvae  were 
allowed  to  live  and  develop  into  drones,  the  store  of 
provisions  set  aside  by  the  working-bees  would  soon 
be  eaten  up  by  six  or  seven  hundred  voracious  insects 
(for  their  appetite  is  of  the  heartiest) ,  and  the  whole 
community  would  perish. 

This  reason  is  cogent  enough,  but  it  can  be  supple- 
mented by  another.     Supposing  that  the  drones  of 


ANSWERS  TO  OBJECTIONS  131 

one  year  were  to  live  until  the  following  summer, 
one  of  these  elderly  males  might  by  some  sport  of 
chance  become  the  husband  of  the  young  queen. 
From  such  a  union  there  would  spring  a  whole 
generation  of  weak  and  sickly  bees,  and  the  existence 
of  the  hive,  their  commonwealth,  would  be  seriously 
imperilled.  The  old  drones  disappear  so  as  not 
to  hinder  the  expansion  and  development  of  the 
community. 

With  human  beings  the  case  is  altogether  different. 
The  development  of  the  community  is  not  impeded 
by  men  who  are  past  their  prime  ;  on  the  contrary, 
their  experience  and  the  scientific  and  other  know- 
ledge which  they  have  acquired  enable  them  to  do 
useful  work  to  further  its  expansion.  Consequently, 
there  is  no  reason  why  our  younger  sisters  should 
slay  us  as  soon  as  our  hair  begins  to  whiten ! 


Objection  : — "  If  it  has  really  been  Nature's  aim,  from  all 
eternity,  to  produce  more  life,  how  is  it  that  the  maximum 
was  not  reached  long  ago  ?  " 

Answer  : — We  believe,  with  Bourdeau,  that  the 
Whole,  in  order  to  live  its  life  in  the  fullest  sense — 
that  is,  to  be  able  to  enjoy  the  widest  range  of 
activity — had  to  split  itself  up  into  a  multitude  of 
particular  objects  differentiated  from  one  another, 
for  otherwise  its  existence  would  remain  vague  and 
indeterminate. 

Each  of  these  particular  objects,  be  it  star,  planet, 
man,  animal,  or  plant,  passes  through  five  principal 
stages  :  birth,  growth,  maturity,  decay,  and  death. 
Life  throughout  the  Universe  endures  only  by 
constant  renewal,  whence  the  law  by  which  every- 
thing that  has  a  beginning  must  also  have  an  end, 
everything  that  is  born  has  to  die.    But  by  "  death  ' ' 


132  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

must  be  understood  not  annihilation  (for  nothing 
can  be  annihilated)  but  simply  reversion  to  the 
original  state. 

There  can  be  no  doubt,  for  example,  that  after 
millions  of  years  all  animals,  including  the  human 
race,  and  after  them  all  plants,  will  gradually  die 
out ;  their  substance,  however,  will  return  to  earth, 
air,  and  water.  Later  on,  the  whole  solar  system 
(including,  of  course,  our  own  planet)  will  also 
revert  to  what  may  be  termed  its  original  state. 
(Ether  and  electrons  ?)  But  this  neutral  condition, 
as  we  may  consider  it,  will  not  last  for  ever.  A 
nebula  will  again  be  evolved  out  of  the  mass  of  ether 
or  electrons  and  will  gradually  be  transformed  into 
a  sun  and  planets.  These  latter  will  engender 
living  things,  which  will  strive  in  their  turn  to 
develop,  to  live  ever  fuller  and  better  lives,  and  to 
expand  to  their  utmost  capacity. 

The  "  partial  universes  "  without  number  which 
exist  at  the  present  moment  have  all  had  a  beginning, 
and  will  therefore  all  come  to  an  end,  each  at  a 
different  period  of  time,  but  only  to  be  born  anew. 

This  cycle  of  birth,  growth,  maturity,  decay,  and 
death  has  occurred  an  infinite  number  of  times  in 
the  past,  and  will  be  repeated  an  infinite  number  of 
times  in  the  future. 

The  forms  of  substance  change — in  other  words, 
they  are  born  and  die  ;  but  the  Universal  Substance 
is  of  its  essence  everlasting.  This  substance,  that 
is  known  to  us  in  its  outward  manifestations  as 
Cosmos,  the  All-embracing  Unity,  the  Great  Whole, 
Nature,  or  the  Universe,  never  having  had  a  be- 
ginning, can  likewise  never  have  an  end. 

Always  in  motion,  its  activity  never  ceases,  and 
is  always  directed  to  one  determmate  end  :  self- 
expansion  through  the  medium  of  hfe.     One  after 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  133 

another,  so  soon  as  their  motive  force  is  exhausted, 
it  breaks  up  the  forms  that  have  issued  from  itself, 
and  this  to  the  end  that  new  forms  may  arise, 
instinct  with  youth  and  vitality. 

It  is  true,  then,  that  an  increase  of  life  has  been 
Nature's  eternal  aim  ;  but  each  planet,  after  having 
supplied  the  maximum  quantity  of  life  and  intelli- 
gence that  it  was  capable  of  producing,  returns  to 
its  *'  original  state,"  and  the  cycle  starts  afresh  so 
as  to  enable  the  Whole  to  renew  its  activity. 

The  phenomenon  is  comparable  to  that  of  an 
annual  plant,  which  germinates  from  a  seed  in  the 
spring,  steadily  continues  its  growth,  and  finally 
produces  its  maximum  of  life  with  the  formation 
of  flowers  and  fruit,  after  which  it  dies.  But 
its  seeds,  which  may  in  fact  be  regarded  as  the  plant 
itself  under  another  form,  being  filled  with  fresh 
vigour,  germinate  in  the  following  spring,  only  to 
die  in  their  turn  after  having  put  forth  their  maxi- 
mum of  life.  And  this  cycle  is  repeated  over  and 
over  again  for  an  incalculable  number  of  generations. 


Objection  : — "  If  everything  has  to  begin  afresh,  and  always 
starts  again  from  the  same  point,  what  is  the  use  of  any 
action  at  all  ?  What  is  the  use  of  trying  to  expand  and 
develop  ?  What  is  the  object  of  working  for  future  genera- 
tions, if  those  who  come  after  us  in  the  far  future  will  have 
to  begin  the  same  task  over  again,  when  a  new  Earth  is 
brought  into  being,  and  so  on  to  all  eternity  ?  " 

Answer  : — One  might  as  well  ask  :  what  is  the 
use  of  teaching  our  children  how  to  read  and  write, 
or  of  instructing  them  in  arithmetic,  history, 
geography,  literature,  and  science,  seeing  that  a 
time  will  come  when  those  children,  having  grown 
up  and  lived  to  old  age,  must  die,  carrying  their 
knowledge  and  experience  with  them  to  the  grave, 


134  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

and  that  the  whole  process  will  have  to  be  repeated 
with  each  generation  ? 

Or,  to  take  a  more  homely  illustration  :  what 
is  the  good  of  getting  up  in  the  morning  and  going 
through  the  same  routine  every  day,  since  you 
will  have  to  go  to  bed  in  the  evening  ? 

Or,  going  a  step  further  still,  why  not  say  what 
Dr  Swift  said  to  his  valet  :  '*  You  tell  me  that  you 
are  hungry  and  want  something  to  eat.  But  what 
is  the  use  of  eating  now,  since  you  will  be  just  as 
hungry  to-morrow,  and  will  have  to  begin  all 
over  again  ?  " 

Each  of  these  questions,  including  those  that  con- 
stitute the  objection,  carries  its  own  reply  with  it. 

We  are  active  and  seek  our  full  expansion  and 
development  because  in  so  doing  we  experience  the 
pleasurable  sensation  already  alluded  to,  which 
arises  from  the  harmonious  accord  of  our  individual 
will  with  the  will  of  Nature.  The  more  perfect 
this  harmony,  the  deeper  and  more  lasting  is  our 
sense  of  pleasure. 

But  in  order  to  render  this  harmony  perfect, 
it  is  necessary  that  we  should  work  not  only  for  our 
personal  development,  but  also  for  that  of  as  many 
of  our  fellow-creatures  as  possible  both  in  the  present 
and  in  the  future. 

The  assurance  that  by  acting  thus  we  are  con- 
tributing to  the  sum  total  of  life  in  the  universe 
satisfies  our  noblest  instincts  and  encourages  us 
in  our  activity. 

If  on  the  contrary  we  remain  inactive,  we  feel 
irritable  and  ill  at  ease  in  mind  and  body,  just  as 
though  both  were  suffering  from  remorse. 

Thus  the  answer  to  the  question,  **  What  is  the 
use  of  action?  "  is  found  to  be  twofold:  Activity 
is  good  and  profitable,  {a)  because  it  fills  us  with 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  135 

pleasure,  and  thus  satisfies  our  egoistic  instinct  ; 
(6)  because  it  helps  the  whole  to  live  in  the  fullest 
sense,  and  thus  satisfies  the  altruistic  side  of  our 
nature. 

Should  these  two  reasons,  however,  be  still  insuffi- 
cient for  some  people,  we  can  add  yet  a  third. 

We  are  active  because — so  long  as  we  are  not 
unwell — we  simply  cannot  help  it !  A  healthy 
man  finds  it  impossible  to  remain  recumbent  and 
motionless  for  more  than  a  certain  length  of  time. 
For  anyone  who  is  not  actually  ill,  a  prolonged 
spell  of  inactivity  becomes  positively  painful,  and 
a  moment  must  come  when  the  wish  "  to  be  doing 
something "  will  prevail  against  the  feeling  of 
indolence. 

When  we  say  that  some  one  is  lazy,  that  simply 
means  that  he  is  loth  to  exert  himself  in  certain 
ways,  not  that  he  is  disinclined  for  any  sort  of  action. 
Many  so-called  idlers  become  very  energetic  when 
amusement  is  their  object. 

The  hermits  of  the  early  Christian  Church  and 
of  the  Middle  Ages  tried  to  do  away  with  action 
altogether,  but  we  know  from  their  sad  complaints 
how  much  they  suffered  from  this  inactivity,  al- 
though it  was  never  more  than  partial. 

In  the  main,  then,  we  act  because  the  life  that 
is  in  us  forces  us  to  do  so.  It  is  impossible  for  us 
to  abstain  from  action. 

*  *  * 

Objection  : — "  If  a  man  gets  drunk,  and  declares  that  in  so 
doing  he  has  obeyed  the  promptings  of  his  nature,  we  have 
no  right  to  blame  him,  since  he  has  acted  in  conformity  with 
Nature." 

Answer: — There  is  a  confusion  of  terms  here. 
When  we  preach  obedience  to  the  laws  of  Nature, 
the  word  Nature,  as  we  have  already  said,  is  to 


136  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

be  taken  in  the  sense  of  Cosmos  or  Universe, 
whereas  in  the  mouth  of  the  drunkard  it  means 
personal  temperament.  Now,  the  nature  of  this 
man  (his  temperament)  is  so  entirely  opposed  to 
Nature,  that  if  he  persists  in  getting  drunk — that 
is  to  say,  in  running  counter  to  Nature's  biological 
laws — ^he  will  become  brutalised  (which  means 
diminution  of  life)  and  finally  succumb  (cessation 
of  life).  After  having  given  him  several  warnings 
(through  his  liver,  kidneys,  heart,  arteries,  and 
brain),  Nature  will  do  away  with  him,  because  she 
has  found  that  he  is  a  bad  workman. 

4:  4:  * 

Objection  : — "  Wine  is  a  natural  product,  hence  it  is  natural 
that  it  should  be  drunk." 

Answer : — We  have  heard  this  argument  put 
forward  in  all  sincerity  by  several  people.  The 
answer  to  it  will  have  already  suggested  itself  to 
our  readers.  Nature  produces  grapes,  but  never 
wine.  Wine  is  the  outcome  of  an  operation  per- 
formed by  man. 

To  accuse  Nature  of  producing  wine  is  as  unjust 

as  it  would  be  to  accuse  her  of  producing  bayonets, 

on  the  plea  that  iron  ore  is  found  in  the  bowels  of 

the  earth. 

*  *  * 

Objection  : — "  If  it  is  right  for  us  to  obey  Nature,  we  must 
follow  not  only  our  good  but  also  our  bad  instincts,  since 
they  are  all  natural." 

Answer  : — Yielding  to  bad  instincts  is  so  far 
from  being  what  Nature  desires,  that  if  any  group 
of  individuals  (nation  or  tribe)  were  to  give  itself 
up  collectively  and  without  restraint  to  brutal 
selfishness,  debauchery,  drunkenness,  violence,  mur- 
der, or  any  other  sort  of  crime,  that  group  would 
automatically  disappear.     And  this  in  itself  would 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  137 

be  sufficient  proof  that  the  group  in  question  had 
failed  to  bend  its  energies  in  the  direction  required 
by  Nature — that  is  to  say,  towards  a  life  ever 
increasing  in  perfection  and  harmony. 

Can  one,  indeed,  imagine  the  possibility  of  strong 
and  healthy  children  being  born  of  individuals 
tainted  with  vice  ?  Can  one  imagine  children 
born  of  vicious  parents  capable  of  conquering  in 
the  struggle  for  existence  ?  Nature  has  no  place 
for  persons  of  this  description,  who  prove  them- 
selves unworthy  servants,  and  even  if  she  does  not 
extirpate  them  at  once,  she  may  be  relied  upon  to 
destroy  their  stock ;  for  let  it  be  repeated  that  all 
living  things  are  bound  to  observe  a  certain  mini- 
mum of  altruism  and  morality  under  pain  of 
ceasing  to  exist,  if  not  always  in  their  own  indi- 
vidual selves,  yet  most  certainly  in  the  long  run 
as  a  race. 

*  *  ♦ 

Objection  : — "  So  far  from  being  '  natural,'  is  not  morality 
an  artificial  product  of  man's  own  invention  ?  " 

Answer  : — On  this  point,  we  shall  content  our- 
selves with  a  quotation  from  Th.  Ribot,  who  says  : 
"  After  all,  these  general  principles  (of  morality) 
have  nothing  mystic  about  them.  They  are  merely 
the  conditions  governing  the  existence  of  any  form 
of  social  life.  No  human  society,  even  the  simplest, 
can  live  except  under  certain  fixed  conditions. 
Imagine  a  society  in  which  it  is  considered  right, 
or  simply  a  matter  of  indifference,  for  its  members  to 
kill  or  rob  one  another,  a  society  in  which  parents 
may  desert  their  children,  and  children  ill-treat 
their  parents  :  it  is  perfectly  clear  that  a  society 
framed  on  such  lines  cannot  continue  to  exist ; 
it  is  doomed  to  perish  by  a  vice  inherent  in  its 
very  constitution.     One  might  as  well  expect  an 


138  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

acephalous  or  hydrocephalous  being  to  live  and 
propagate  its  species,  which  would  be  a  physio- 
logical absurdity.  Every  monster,  every  organism 
standing  outside  the  normal  conditions  of  life, 
must  inevitably  perish  ;  and  the  same  thing  is 
equally  true  of  the  social  organism.  Now,  morality 
reduced  to  its  essential  principle  is  really  made  up 
of  these  conditions,  which  being  absent  human  life 
tends  to  disappear.  It  is  not  a  mere  convention, 
therefore,  but  the  simple  truth  to  say  that  morality 
is  natural,  since  it  is  a  necessary  consequence  of 
the  nature  of  things  as  they  are.  Likewise,  morality 
may  be  termed  immutable,  necessary,  and  im- 
perative, taking  these  words  not  in  the  vague, 
transcendental,  and  elusive  sense  generally  assigned 
to  them,  but  in  a  precise,  positive,  and  unequivocal 
sense,  for  they  mean  that  its  stability  is  the 
stability  of  Nature,  and  its  necessity  the  necessity 
of  logic." 

We  may  add  that,  on  the  whole,  the  morality 
freely  adopted  by  man  tends  to  effect,  in  a  conscious 
way,  the  very  same  things  which  animals  have 
been  doing  more  or  less  unconsciously  for  millions 
of  years.  For,  indeed,  the  primary  tendency  of 
this  morality,  whether  based  on  reason  or  instinct, 
is  towards  the  preservation  and  expansion  of  life. 
♦  «  * 

Objection  : — "  Since  life  in  all  its  forms  is  a  thing  we  should 
hold  dear,  we  ought  to  refrain  from  killing  insects  and 
animals,  even  those  that  are  harmful  to  us." 

Answer  : — The  duty  of  every  species,  animal  or 
vegetable,  is  to  live.  This  is  also  the  duty  of  the 
human  race.  It  is  evident,  then,  that  man  has  the 
right  to  get  rid  of  insects  and  animals  that  hinder 
his  development  either  by  endangering  his  life 
(lions,    tigers,    serpents,    etc.),    or    by    spreading 


ANSWERS  TO  OBJECTIONS  139 

diseases   (rats,    mosquitoes),  or  by   destroying   his 
crops  (caterpillars,  locusts). 

At  the  same  time,  this  motto  should  always 
remain  engraved  on  our  inmost  heart :  "  Respect 
and  sympathy  for  every  living  thing."  We  shall 
destroy  nothing,  therefore,  unless  absolutely  obliged. 
We  shall  not,  wantonly  and  without  necessity, 
tear  off  branches  or  leaves  that  happen  to  hang 
within  our  reach  ;  we  shall  not  pick  wild  flowers 
merely  to  throw  them  away.  In  a  word,  we  shall 
allow  all  things  to  live  and  develop  as  far  as  possible 
without  interference. 

Not  only  shall  we  refrain  from  destroying  them, 
unless  absolutely  obliged,  but  we  shall  not  make 
them  suffer.  We  shall  not  amuse  ourselves  by 
setting  our  dog  to  chase  a  cat  that  is  walking 
sedately  down  the  road  ;  we  shall  not  take  young 
birds  from  the  nest  and  shut  them  up  in  a  cage  ; 
we  shall  not  flog  a  horse  that  is  drawing  a  heavj^ 
load,  nor  frighten  him  by  cracking  the  whip,  but 
speak  to  him  and  encourage  him  with  the  sound  of 
our  voice. 

We  shall  use  no  traps  that  cause  injury  and 
suffering. 

We    shall    not    go    hunting    "  for    pleasure "  : 
Respect  and  sympathy  for  every  living  thing  ! 
*  *  « 

Objection : — "  For  long  ages  man  has  been  fighting  against 
the  forces  of  Nature.  .  .  .  And  now  that  he  has  at  last 
become  nearly  civilised,  he  is  devoting  the  greater  part  of 
his  energy  to  the  conquest  of  those  forces." 

Answer : — Man  cannot  conquer  the  forces  of 
Nature,  nor  can  he  fight  against  them.  These 
phrases,  that  we  meet  at  every  turn,  are  utterly 
meaningless.  The  truth  is,  that  man  has  gradually 
acquired  a  better  understanding  of  these  forces,  and 


140  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

that,  instead  of  fighting  against  them  and  trying 
to  conquer  them,  he  has  learned  to  work  with  them, 
to  follow  the  direction  in  which  they  themselves  are 
working. 

What  does  man  do  when  he  wishes  to  protect 
himself  against  lightning  ?  He  does  not  fight 
against  electricity,  but  on  the  contrary  facilitates 
the  union  of  the  positive  and  negative  currents  by 
means  of  a  metal  rod,  thus  anticipating  their  own 
inclination. 

A  similar  remark  applies  to  the  Pasteur  method 
of  treating  diseases.  It  was  necessary  first  of  all 
to  ascertain  the  laws  regulating  the  life  of  bacilli, 
and  then  those  that  determine  the  functions  and 
activity  of  the  phagocytes  and  the  serum  of  the 
blood.  At  this  point  came  the  intervention  of 
man,  in  order  to  facilitate  the  action  of  the  serum 
and  the  phagocytes ;  but  the  laws  themselves 
remain  the  same  as  before,  and  cannot  be  brought 
into  subjection  by  man. 


Objection  : — "  The  object  of  mankind  should  be  a  rectifi- 
cation of  Nature  in  accordance  with  a  human  ideal." 

Answer  : — It  is  quite  impossible  to  admit  that 
the  object  of  mankind  should  be  a  rectification  of 
Nature.  Adaptation  to  the  laws  of  Nature,  if  you 
will,  but  not  a  rectification.  Are  you  going  to 
rectify  the  laws  of  gravitation,  or  those  that  control 
the  formation  of  chemical  compounds  ?  Is  your 
rectification  of  Nature  to  be  such  that  a  man  may 
throw  himself  into  a  blazing  fire  and  come  out 
unharmed  ?  Are  you  going  to  change  the  laws  of 
physiology  so  that  we  may  be  able  to  live  without 
having  to  absorb  a  certain  quantity  of  oxygen  at 
regular  intervals  ? 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  141 

Our  wisdom  should  lead  us  to  submit  to  the 
laws  of  Nature  and  to  adapt  ourselves  to  them  just 
as  we  should  adapt  ourselves  to  anything  that  we 
cannot  alter.  We  must  have  union  among  men  in 
the  place  of  contention,  it  is  true,  not  because  this 
is  a  rectification  of  Nature,  but  on  the  contrary 
because  we  are  thus  obeying  the  great  natural 
law  that  we  may  call  the  law  of  co-operation  in  the 
interests  of  life. 

*  *  * 

Objection : — "  In  the  constant  proportion  of  saline  matter 
in  the  blood,  and  in  the  constant  temperature  of  the  body, 
have  we  not  a  proof  that  Nature,  instead  of  favouring 
activity  and  development,  aims  above  all  at  preserving  the 
status  quo  ?  And,  consequently,  may  it  not  be  said  that 
what  we  call  evolution  and  adaptation  to  environment  has 
taken  place  only  in  order  to  ensure  the  life  of  the  cell  by 
keeping  it  in  its  original  environment  and  preventing  any 
change  ?  For,  after  all,  how  can  there  be  any  genuine 
evolution  when  there  is  this  phenomenon  of  constancy  that 
is  opposed  to  it  ?  " 

Answer  : — If  the  life  of  the  cell  had  been  all 
that  Nature  was  striving  for,  she  would  have  been 
content  to  reproduce  marine  cells  indefinitely, 
since  their  original  environment,  the  ocean,  would 
have  been  far  more  favourable  to  them  than  any 
other.  Nature  would  not  in  that  case  have  gone 
beyond  the  primitive  cell,  for  such  a  cell  would 
have  found  all  that  it  required  in  the  sea,  with  much 
less  trouble  than  in  the  bodies  of  animals. 

But  Nature  did  not  act  thus.  She  created  land 
animals,  which  complicated  matters  greatly.  Being 
built  up  of  marine  cells,  these  animals  were  obliged 
to  reproduce  a  miniature  ocean  in  their  own  bodies 
and  carry  it  about  wherever  they  went,  and  that 
involved  much  continuous  hard  work.  For  they 
had  to  create,  develop,  and  bring  to  perfection  a 


142  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

whole  number  of  different  organs — organs  of 
vision,  locomotion,  prehension,  mastication,  diges- 
tion, etc. — so  as  to  be  able  to  seize  their  prey 
and,  by  means  of  complex  chemical  processes,  to 
turn  it  into  suitable  food  which  they  could  assimi- 
late. The  cell  of  the  ocean,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
always  immersed  in  a  regular  "  culture  broth," 
where  sufficient  nourishment  could  be  absorbed  by 
osmosis. 

The  living  cell  made  its  first  appearance  in  the 
sea  at  a  time  when  the  chemical  constitution  as 
well  as  the  temperature  of  sea-water  was  most 
favourable  to  life.  Now,  the  conditions  that  were 
favourable  to  the  life  of  the  cell  millions  of  years 
ago  are  still  favourable  to  it  to-day.  It  is  reason- 
able, therefore,  that  Nature  should  continue  to 
provide  for  the  cell's  abode  the  same  fluid  which  was 
and  is  so  well  adapted  to  serve  as  a  vital  medium. 
But  thanks  to  the  appearance  and  evolution  of 
special  organs,  the  life  of  the  cell  that  began  so 
humbly  and  simply  has  now  become  conscious 
life,  and  has  reached  a  high  degree  of  development. 

The  law  of  constancy  has  reference  only  to 
individual  cells,  whereas  the  law  of  evolution  is 
applicable  to  organs,  and  to  the  animal  as  a  whole. 

Quinton  very  aptly  observes  that  "  all  the  acts 
of  life  have  one  useful  end  in  view — that  of  living." 
To  which  we  will  add,  that  the  living  thing,  in  order 
to  obtain  the  fullest  life,  avails  itself  of  the  principle 
of  constancy  (in  salinity  and  temperature)  as  well 
as  of  adaptation  and  evolution. 

The  conjunction  of  these  three  things — constancy 
in  the  cell,  adaptation  and  evolution  in  the  bodily 
organs — renders  possible  not  only  a  greater  quantity 
of  life,  but  also  a  Hfe  characterised  by  the  maximum 
of  activity,  vigour,  and  intelligence,   thus  clearly 


ANSWERS  TO  OBJECTIONS         143 

marking  the  final  goal  towards  which  Nature  is 
ceaselessly  moving. 

*  *  3): 

Objection  : — "It  is  maintained  by  a  few  scientists,  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  general  view,  that  the  appearance  of  birds  was 
posterior  to  that  of  man.  They  base  their  assertion  on 
'  the  anatomical  and  physiological  superiority  of  the  genus 
bird  to  the  genus  mammal'  (higher  development  of  the 
bird's  anatomy  as  regards  physiological  division  of  labour, 
new  organs,  and  other  apparatus).  This  would  indicate 
that  the  process  of  evolution  has  reached  its  highest  point 
in  the  bird  and  not  in  man." 

Answer  : — We  know  that  evolution — that  is  to 
say,  the  advance  from  the  simple  to  the  complex, 
from  uniformity  to  diversity — "  has  often  made  its 
way  through  ups  and  downs  and  along  broken 
lines,  circumstances  not  always  permitting  a  con- 
tinuous ascent  and  uninterrupted  progression  in  a 
straight  line." 

For  example,  men  and  monkeys  had  a  common 
ancestor.  At  this  point  the  stream  of  evolution 
bifurcated  (so  far  as  men  and  monkeys  are  con- 
cerned) and  followed  two  different  channels,  one 
leading  to  the  development  of  muscle  (the  larger 
apes),  and  the  other  to  the  development  of  brain 
(man) .  Why  should  it  not  be  the  same  in  the  case 
of  birds  and  men  ? 

Even  if  we  admit  that  the  bird  was  evolved  after 
man  (which  is  doubtful) ,  and  that  it  is  physiologically 
his  superior  (which  is  by  no  means  certain),  that 
would  only  go  to  prove  that,  in  this  case  also,  a 
bifurcation  took  place  between  physical  and  intel- 
lectual development,  the  former  culminating  in 
the  bird  with  its  "  superior  physiological  division 
of  labour,"  the  latter  in  man  with  his  corresponding 
superiority  in  the  psychological  domain. 


144 


AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 


Objection  : — "  To  say  that  Nature  is  intelligent  is  to  regard 
Nature  as  a  being  in  our  own  image." 

Answer  : — In  the  foregoing  pages  we  have  ah-eady 
cited  numerous  instances  of  Nature's  intelligence. 
Here  are  some  others.  They  are  of  particular 
interest  as  showing  in  unmistakable  fashion  the 
intellectual  relationship  between  Nature  and  man. 
Both  of  them  overcome  their  difficulties  in  exactly 
the  same  way. 

(The  following  examples  are  selected  at  random, 
and  are  not  given  in  the  order  of  their  importance.) 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 

The  use  of  corrosive 
acid  for  engraving  metal 
plates.  (The  lines  traced 
by  the  artist  are  etched 
in  the  metal  by  means 
of  nitric  acid.) 


Electric  light  bulbs. 


Aeroplanes     and     all 
sorts  of  flying  machines. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

The  acid  secreted  by 
various  organisms,  which 
serves  to  perforate  lime- 
stone and  even  granite, 
so  that  they  may  find  a 
lodging  in  it.  Among 
these  organisms  may  be 
specified  certain  mol- 
luscs (phalades,  litho- 
domes,  etc.),  and  many 
worms  belonging  to  the 
family  of  hairy  annelids. 

Luminous  spots  on  the 
bodies  of  many  fishes  liv- 
ing in  the  ocean  depths. 

Birds,  butterflies,  bees, 
flies,  etc.  Also  flying- 
fish,  whose  pectoral  fins, 
being  longer  than  their 
bodies  and  composed 
of  membrane  stretched 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  145 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 


The  standing  army 
which  serves  to  protect 
a  nation's  territory 
against  invasion. 


The  armour  worn  by 
knights. 

Road-sweepers  and 
scavengers  whose  func- 
tion it  is  to  remove  dirt 
and  rubbish. 

Water  ballast  (in  sub- 
marines) ,  which  when 
increased  or  diminished 
enables  the  vessel  to  sink 
or  to  come  up  to  the  sur- 
face. 

The  boat  with  its  oars 
and  rudder. 

The  blind  man's  staff. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

over  a  number  of  thin 
bony  processes,  remind 
one  in  their  general 
structure  of  the  wings 
of  aeroplanes. 

Phagocytes,  forming 
a  regular  standing  army, 
which  attack  and  kill 
any  disease  germs  that 
may  find  their  way  into 
the  system. 

The  shell  of  the  tor- 
toise, etc. 

Phagocytes  that  dis- 
pose of  worn-out  cells, 
old  and  useless  red  cor- 
puscles, etc. 

The  swimming  blad- 
der in  fishes,  which  by 
contracting  or  expand- 
ing enables  them  to 
maintain  a  state  of  equi- 
librium at  any  depth  re- 
quired. 

The  fish  with  its  fins 
and  tail. 

The  abnormally  long 
feelers  of  insects  living 
in  dark  caves,  and  found 
also  in  certain  blind 
animals  at  the  bottom 
of  the  sea. 

TO 


146 


AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 

Buffers  on  railway 
carriages  meant  to  dead- 
en the  shock  of  contact. 


Hot-air  apparatus  for 
heating  rooms,  which  at 
the  same  time  acts  as  a 
filter  for  particles  of 
dust,  etc.,  in  the  air 
passing  through  it. 


Rubber. 


Hinges     fitted     with 
springs. 

Glue  and  gum. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

Discs  of  elastic  ma- 
terial inserted  between 
the  vertebrae,  and  in- 
tended to  absorb  all 
shocks  to  the  spinal 
column,  as  in  walking, 
jumping,  etc. 

The  nose,  which  raises 
the  temperature  of  the 
air  inhaled  from  without 
by  several  degrees,  and 
at  the  same  time  by 
means  of  its  mucus  pre- 
vents the  passage  of  a 
quantity  of  microbes, 
dust,  etc. 

The  impervious  yet 
highly  elastic  skin  of  the 
body,  which  permits  of 
every  sort  of  movement 
without  tearing. 

The  spring-like  action 
in  bivalve  shells. 

A  highly  adhesive  kind 
of  gum  or  glue  which 
exudes  from  the  tips  of 
the  spreading  tendrils 
of  the  Japanese  vine, 
and  enables  the  plant 
to  cling  tightly  to  the 
support  which  it  re- 
quires. —  The  glutinous 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS 


147 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 


The    chisel    used    for 
cutting  wood  or  stone. 


The  diving-bell. 


The  hollow  metal  cy- 
linders used  by  builders 
instead  of  solid  pillars, 
as  being  both  lighter 
and  stronger. 

Chemical  compounds 
produced  for  industrial 
purposes. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man, 

saliva  of  swallows, 
mason-bees,  etc.,  with 
which  they  cement  their 
nests. 

The  front  teeth  in 
rodents.  Not  only  do 
these  teeth  grow  as  fast 
as  they  are  worn  away, 
but  as  they  are  some- 
what softer  on  the  in- 
side they  wear  out  more 
quickly  there,  and  are 
thus  always  kept  sharp. 

The  nest  of  the  water- 
spider,  which  is  always 
kept  full  of  air. 

The  hollow  bones  of 
the  body. 


Chemical  compounds 
manufactured  in  the 
body  for  the  production 
of  various  juices  to  be 
used  in  the  digestion  and 
transformation  of  food, 
so  that  first  of  all  it  may 
be  absorbed  by  osmosis, 
and,  next,  that  every 
part  of  the  body  may 
find    in   the    blood    all 


148 


AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 


Pipes  for  the  convey- 
ance of  the  necessary 
amount  of  water  to  all 
parts  of  a  town,  and 
even  into  each  separate 
house. 


Antidotes  to  poisons, 
discovered  by  man. 


Cords  for  keeping  in 
place  the  canvas  of  tents, 
the  sails  of  ships,  etc. 

String  to  tie  different 
articles  together. 


Diaphragm     of     the 
photographic  camera. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

the  substances  it  needs. 
— Chemical  compounds 
secreted  by  the  glands. 

Arteries  and  veins  to 
carry  the  blood  into  all 
parts  of  the  body,  with 
the  additional  improve- 
ment of  tiny  valves  in 
the  veins  of  the  lower 
part  of  the  body,  which 
counteract  the  effects  of 
gravity,  and  facilitate 
the  return  of  the  blood 
to  the  heart. 

Anti-toxins  manufac- 
tured by  the  phagocj^tes 
and  the  serum  of  the 
blood  for  the  purpose  of 
destroying  the  poisons 
introduced  by  bacilli. 

Cords  securing  the 
valves  of  the  heart. 

Ligaments  binding  to- 
gether the  208  bones 
which  constitute  the 
human  skeleton. 

The  iris,  which  auto- 
matically dilates  or  con- 
tracts according  to  the 
amount  of  light  to  which 
the  eye  is  exposed. 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  149 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 

Sponge  or  wet  rag 
used  for  cleaning  win- 
dows. 


Barbed  wire,  the  arti- 
ficial counterpart  of 
brambles,  for  keeping  off 
men  and  beasts. 

Telegraph  wires. 

Fishing  and  fowling 
nets. 

Filters. 


Oil  or  grease  for  lubri- 
cating machinery. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

The  moist  eyelid, 
which  by  its  blinking 
constantly  removes  from 
the  cornea  particles  of 
dust,  etc.,  which  other- 
wise would  soon  injure 
the  sight.  The  eyelid 
is  kept  moist  by  the 
lachrymal  gland,  which 
supplies  the  necessary 
liquid  in  minute  quan- 
tities. The  surplus  is 
carried  off  by  a  duct 
leading  from  the  inner 
corner  of  the  eye  through 
the  nasal  bone. 

Natural  thorns  and 
brambles  meant  to  keep 
men  and  beasts  at  a 
distance. 

Nerves. 

Spiders'  webs  for 
catching  flies. 

The  kidneys,  which 
filter  the  blood  by  ex- 
tracting poisonous  mat- 
ter and  transferring  it  to 
the  urine. 

Synovia,  a  kind  of  oil 
which  lubricates  the 
joints. — A  greasy  sub- 
stance exuded  by  some 


150 


AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 


Oil  or  other  fatty  mat- 
ter rubbed  on  leather, 
hides,  etc.,  in  order  to 
keep  them  supple. 

Oil  or  grease  rubbed 
on  metal  objects  in  order 
to  preserve  them  from 
damp. 

Instruments  for  the 
production  of  musical 
sounds  (wind  and  string 
instruments) . 

The  lens  and  camera 
obscura  used  in  photo- 
graphy. 

Levers  for  lifting 
heavy  weights. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

sixty  little  glands  situa- 
ted behind  the  eyelashes. 
This  oily  liquid  eases  the 
movement  of  the  eye- 
lids so  that  no  friction  is 
felt. 

Fatty  secretions  of  the 
sebaceous  glands  which 
prevent  the  skin  from 
getting  dry,  and  keep  it 
supple  and  elastic. 

The  oil  with  which  the 
feathers  of  aquatic  birds 
are  impregnated  as  a 
protection  against  the 
wet. 

The  vocal  cords,  which 
can  be  stretched  or  re- 
laxed, and  are  made  to 
vibrate  by  the  com- 
pressed air  in  the  lungs. 

The  crystalline  lens 
and  the  dark  cavity  of 
the  eye. 

The  bones  of  the  arm, 
the  leg,  the  jaw,  etc., 
which  are  made  to  act 
as  levers  by  means  of 
muscles  and  the  elastic 
cords,  capable  of  con- 
traction, which  we  call 
tendons. 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  151 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 

Mills  for  crushing 
grain. 

The  microscope  and 
the  telescope. 


Parachutes. 

The  cup-shaped  part 
of  wind  instruments 
(called  the  "  bell  "). 

Paintings  with  their 
varied  colours. 


Photographic  plates 
and  coloured  photo- 
graphs. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

Teeth  for  masticating 
food. 

The  crystalline  lens  of 
the  eye,  which  auto- 
matically assumes  a 
flattened  or  a  spherical 
form  so  as  to  focus  the 
image  of  external  ob- 
jects on  the  retina  at 
whatever  distance  they 
may  be — six  inches  or 
several  miles. 

Dandelion  seeds,  etc. 

The  open  mouth. 


The  brilliantly  colour- 
ed markings  on  the 
feathers  of  the  peacock 
and  other  birds,  on  the 
wings  of  certain  butter- 
flies and  the  petals  of 
many  flowers. 

The  retina  of  the  eye, 
which  faithfully  repro- 
duces the  image  of  ex- 
ternal objects,  and 
which,  if  properly 
trained,  shows  a  mar- 
vellous sensitiveness  to 
colour.  Two  thousand 
different  colours  are  dis- 


152 


^A^   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 


The  force-pump  with 
its  valves. 


Purgatives  for  scour- 
ing away  obstructions  in 
the  intestine. 


Metal  springs. 


The   hypodermic   sy- 
ringe. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

tinguished  in  the  code 
used  by  dyers.  The  firm 
of  Gobelins  use  no  fewer 
than  14,421  shades  in 
the  making  of  their 
famous  tapestries. 

The  heart,  which  with 
its  ventricles  constitutes 
a  regular  force-pump. 
The  heart  has  been  com- 
pared to  a  pump  with 
four  cylinders  working 
in  pairs. 

Colostrum,  a  liquid 
secreted  by  the  mammil- 
lary  glands  at  child- 
birth, which  appears  a 
day  or  two  before  the 
milk  properly  so  called. 
It  is  a  laxative  intended 
to  flush  the  bowels  of 
the  new-born  infant. 

A  spring-like  mechan- ' 
ism  found  on  the  balsam, 
lupine,  box,  broom,  etc., 
which  being  suddenly  re- 
leased flings  the  seed  to  a 
distance. — Muscles  that 
contract  and  expand. 

The  stings  of  wasps, 
bees, etc.,  and  the  poison- 
fangs  of  snakes. 


ANSWERS   TO   OBJECTIONS  153 


Invented  by  man  after 
repeated  trials. 

Light-signals. 


Bellows  for  sucking  in 
air  and  expelling  it  again. 


Rubber  tubes. 


Pipes  or  tubes  laid 
underground  for  the  pro- 
tection of  telegraph  and 
telephone  wires. 


Uniform  of  a  special 
tint,  which  blends  in- 
distinguishably  with  the 
landscape,  and  is  worn 
by  soldiers  in  order  that 
they  may  be  as  nearly 
invisible  to  the  enemy  as 
possible. 


Invented  by  Nature  long 
before  the  appearance 
of  man. 

The  Hght  emitted  by 
glow-worms.  The  female 
shows  her  light  in  order 
to  make  her  presence 
known  to  the  male,  who 
has  wings. 

The  lungs,  which  ex- 
pand and  contract  for 
the  purpose  of  inhaling 
and  exhaling  air. 

The  oesophagus,  an 
elastic  rubber-like  tube 
which  by  its  peristaltic 
movement  carries  food 
from  the  mouth  to  the 
stomach. 

The  vertebral  column, 
or  spine,  which  is  com- 
posed of  a  succession  of 
small  tubes  (vertebrae), 
and  serves  to  protect  the 
spinal  marrow,  a  long 
cord  made  up  of  a  large 
number  of  nerve  fibres. 

A  large  number  of 
fishes  (turbot,  soles,  etc.) 
have  the  power,  especi- 
ally when  they  are 
young  and  need  more 
protection,  of  assimilat- 
ing themselves  rapidly, 
in  appearance  and  colour, 


154 


AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 


Transparent  glass. 


Invented  by  man  after        Invented  by  Nature  long 
repeated  trials.  before   the   appearance 

of  man. 

to  the  ground  over  which 
they  are.  It  is  then 
almost  impossible  to  see 
them. 

The  transparent  cor- 
nea of  the  eye,  situated 
opposite  the  crystalline 
lens,  and  the  lens  itself, 
which  is  as  transparent 
as  crystal. 

The  cornea  of  the  eye, 
which  allows  light  to 
pass  through  the  pupil 
but  protects  it  from  the 
wind  and  dust,  which 
would  soon  dry  it  up. 

The  white  filaments 
of  plant  roots,  which 
impart  a  slow  but  steady 
spiral  motion  to  their 
tips,  and  thus  bore  their 
way  through  the  soil 
after  the  manner  of  a 
gimlet. 

We  must  add  that  man,  in  spite  of  his  intelli- 
gence, still  appears  inferior  to  Nature  in  many 
respects.  For  example,  a  factory  chimney  72 
feet  high  must  be  at  least  4  feet  thick  at  its  base. 
But  a  rye-stalk  60  inches  in  height  is  often  less 
than  an  eighth  of  an  inch  thick  near  the  root.  The 
height  of  the  chimney  built  by  man  is  not  more 
than  18  times  its  diameter  at  the  base,  whereas  the 


Window-panes,  which 
let  light  into  a  room  but 
keep  out  wind  and  dust. 


The  gimlet  that 
pierces  wood,  etc.,  by 
being  twisted  round  and 
round. 


ANSWERS  TO  OBJECTIONS  155 

height  of  the  rye-stalk  produced  by  Nature  is 
500  times  its  own  diameter. 

But  the  superiority  of  Nature  is  most  clearly 
marked  by  the  fact  that  the  organs  she  creates  are, 
in  nearly  every  case,  themselves  able  to  repair  any 
accidental  damage  they  may  suffer  (broken  bones, 
lacerated  muscles,  severed  skin,  etc.)  ;  and  not 
only  so,  but  keep  on  renewing  the  parts  that  wear 
out,  so  that  these  organs  are  able  to  work  without 
a  single  break  for  seventy,  eighty,  or  ninety  years 
and  more. 

Where  is  the  force-pump  of  man's  invention 
that  is  capable  of  working  continuously,  day  and 
night,  for  so  lengthy  a  period  of  time  as  the  heart  ? 
And  yet  the  work  done  by  the  heart  (in  the  human 
being,  for  example)  is  very  considerable,  seeing 
that  it  sends  about  six  ounces  of  blood  through 
the  pulmonary  artery  100,000  times  in  every 
24  hours,  at  the  rate  of  70  beats  a  minute. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  the  lungs,  a  pair  of 
bellows  which  is  also  proof  against  fatigue,  and 
registers  16  inspirations  and  expirations  a  minute. 
This  makes  a  total  of  something  like  23,000  con- 
tractions and  23,000  expansions  every  24  hours, 
during  which  time  640,000  cubic  inches  of  air  are 
passed  through  the  lungs. 

The  same  again  applies  to  the  kidneys,  which 
act  as  a  most  admirable  filter,  and  indeed  to  every 
organ  and  every  part  of  the  body,  including  the 
skin,  that  impervious  and  elastic  covering  which  in 
spite  of  occasional  knocks  and  rents  will  sometimes 
last  as  long  as  a  hundred  years,  because  it  is  con- 
stantly renewing  itself  and  loses  no  time  in  healing 
any  abrasion. 

Lastly,  we  may  observe  that  the  instruments 
invented  by  Nature  do  their  work  without  making 


156  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

a  troublesome  noise.  This  absence  of  noise  is 
characteristic,  under  normal  conditions,  of  the 
heart  and  lungs  and  joints  of  our  limbs.  It 
represents  a  pitch  of  perfection  which  very  few 
instruments  invented  by  man  have  been  able 
to  reach. 

Maeterlinck  expresses  the  truth  when  he  says  : 
"  We  have  long  taken  a  somewhat  foolish  pride  in 
the  belief  that  we  are  unique  and  marvellous 
beings,  the  product  of  some  miraculous  chance 
which  appears  to  have  wafted  us  here  from  another 
world,  without  any  certain  link  binding  us  to  the 
rest  of  creation,  and  in  any  case  endowed  with 
faculties  so  abnormal  and  unparalleled  as  to  be 
something  quite  portentous.  It  is  much  better 
for  us  not  to  be  such  prodigies,  as  we  have  learned 
that  freaks  and  prodigies  quickly  disappear  in 
the  natural  course  of  evolution.  It  is  much  more 
reassuring  to  know  that  we  are  travelling  along 
the  same  road  as  the  soul  that  animates  this  mighty 
world,  that  we  have  the  same  ideas,  the  same  hopes, 
the  same  trials,  and — were  it  not  for  the  essentially 
human  aspiration  after  justice  and  compassion 
— almost  the  same  sentiments.^  It  is  much  more 
comforting  to  observe  that  the  means  we  adopt 
for  ameliorating  our  lot,  for  utilising  forces  and 
opportunities  and  the  laws  of  matter,  are  precisely 
those  which  are  used  by  Nature  herself.  It  is  much 
better  for  us  to  realise  that,  from  the  intellectual 
point  of  view  at  anyrate,  this  Power  {i.e.  Nature) 
is  closely  akin  to  ourselves.  Our  mind  and  hers 
draw  from  one  and  the  same  source.  We  are  on 
the  same  plane — one  might  almost  say,  on  an  equal 
footing." 

Le   Dantec  has   justly  said  :     "  Plants   have   a 

1  On  the  justice  of  Nature,  however,  see  above,  p.  loo,  etc. 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  157 

logic  of  their  own,  and  act  on  it  just  as  we  do,  so 

that  we  cannot  dispute  their  inteUigence." 

And,  as  we  have  seen,  the  same  holds  good  not 

only  for  plants,  but  for  every  part  of  every  living 

thing — plants,  animals,  and  human  beings.     Every 

living  organ  is  ipso  facto  intelligent.     We  may  go 

further,  and  say  that  every  living  cell  is  ipso  facto 

intelligent,  for  life  and  intelligence  are  intimately 

connected    and    always    make    their    appearance 

together. 

«  ♦  * 

Objection  : — "11  ^'ature  desires  this  tourfold  development 
of  body,  intellect,  ethical  sense,  and  aesthetic  feeling,  how 
is  it  that  so  many  men — who  as  part  and  parcel  of  Nature 
should  submit  to  her  guidance — do  exactly  the  opposite  of 
what  she  desires,  and  try  to  find  elsewhere  than  in  obedience 
to  her  commands  the  happiness  of  which  they  dream,  and 
the  fulfilment  of  their  destiny  ?  " 

Answer  : — What  is  called  "  life  "  in  an  animal 
or  in  man  is  nothing  but  the  sum  total  of  a  multi- 
tude of  little  lives  which  are  distributed  throughout 
the  whole  system.  Paul  Bert :  *'  Every  part  of 
the  body  lives  a  personal  life,  and  by  every  part  we 
mean  not  only  every  organ,  every  limb,  but  each 
of  those  anatomical  elements  out  of  which  all 
organs  and  limbs,  and  the  body  itself,  are  built  up." 
G.  Le  Bon  :  "A  living  being  is  an  aggregate  of 
cells  which  are  also  alive."  L.  Bourdeau  :  "  That 
it  (the  cell)  has  a  distinct  existence,  a  real  indi- 
viduality, cannot  be  gainsaid."  In  truth,  the 
body  is  a  commonwealth,  composed  of  an  immense 
number  of  citizens  (cells).  Not  only  has  each 
cell  its  special  organisation  and  distinct  functions 
to  fulfil,  but,  what  is  more,  it  has  its  own  peculiari- 
ties of  feeling,  it  has  its  memory  (since  it  preserves 
a  trace  of  past  impressions,  and  can  reproduce  them 
when    necessary),    its    intelligence,    its    desires    or 


158  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

tendencies,  its  will ;  so  that  human  personality 
is  nothing  but  the  sum  of  all  these  intelligences, 
sensations,  desires,  wills,  and  memories. 

For,  as  C.  Richet  very  aptly  remarks,  "  the  cell 
is  a  microcosm  which  reproduces  on  a  small  scale 
the  living  being  in  its  entirety.  All  properties  of 
the  cell  are  also  properties  of  the  living  being,  and 
all  properties  of  the  living  being  are  also  properties 
of  the  cell." 

This  then,  is  the  answer  which  we  can  now  give 
to  the  objection  formulated  above :  Each  cell, 
like  every  living  being,  seeks  to  obey  the  laws  of 
Nature  and  the  impulses  coming  from  her — that 
is  to  say,  seeks  to  satisfy  its  longing  for  activity, 
endeavours  to  live  completely,  and  aspires  to  its 
fullest  development.  But  the  cells  have  not  all 
the  same  strength  or  the  same  energy  (just  as  in  any 
kind  of  society  all  individuals  are  not  equal  in 
health,  strength,  energy,  or  intelligence).  This 
inequality  is  the  result  of  heredity,  of  bad  education 
(which  has  not  harmoniously  developed  all  the 
cells),  of  the  state  of  health,  and  of  a  multitude 
of  other  temporary  or  permanent  causes.  The 
strongest  and  most  energetic  cells  will  evidently 
have  a  tendency  to  develop  at  the  expense  of  their 
neighbours.  The  strong  will  become  stronger 
and  stronger,  and  the  weak,  weaker  and  weaker  ; 
it  is  a  struggle  for  supremacy  which  always 
ends  in  the  defeat  of  the  less  energetic.  Thus 
the  brain  will  inevitably  be  dominated  by  such 
aptitudes  or  faculties,  desires  or  tendencies,  qualities 
or  feelings,  as  are  brought  forth  by  those  cells  that 
are    most   highly    developed,^    and    the   owner   of 

^  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  recall  the  fact  that  intelligence  and 
will-power,  although  found  most  liighly  developed  in  the  brain 
cells,  exist  also  in  every  part  of  the  body.     A  thousand  facts 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  159 

the  brain  will  have  a  tendency  to  be  generous  or 
miserly,  altruistic  or  egoistic,  patient  or  hasty, 
sentimental  or  practical,  honest  or  dishonest, 
diligent  or  lazy,  as  the  case  may  be.  It  will  also 
depend  on  the  cells  that  have  become  paramount 
whether  he  is  a  scientist,  poet,  musician,  painter, 
sculptor,  writer,  mathematician,  engineer,  inventor, 
etc.  If,  for  instance,  we  take  a  great  mathema- 
tician, we  shall  see  that,  whatever  may  be  his 
environment  or  the  circumstances  in  which  he  is 
placed,  or  however  strong  his  emotions  may  be, 
he  will  never  be  a  poet.  His  "  mathematical  cells  " 
being  from  birth  much  more  energetic  and  endowed 
with  much  greater  vitality  than  his  "  poetical 
cells,"  our  great  man  will  be  a  great  mathematician, 
but  never  a  good  poet.  His  "  poetical  cells " 
have  been  atrophied  by  reason  of  the  abnormal 
development,  the  superabundant  health  and  vigour, 
of  his  "  mathematical  cells." 

We  must  impress  the  following  truth  on  our 
minds  :  each  cell  taken  separately  makes  every 
possible  effort  to  attain  its  full  development, 
and  in  this  way  to  conform  to  Nature's  desire  ; 
but  in  any  cluster  of  cells,  such  as  the  brain,  nothing 
can  prevent  certain  cells  from  becoming  stronger 
than  the  rest  and  thus  dominating,  as  we  have  said, 
the  whole  group.  This  is  what  happens  in  countries 
that  enjoy  a  parliamentary  form  of  government. 
Those  citizens  that  are  most  active,  energetic,  and 
tenacious  impose  their  will  on  the  others,  and 
mould  and  direct  popular  opinion.  Now,  the  body 
is  really  a  sort  of  commonwealth. 

prove  it.  For  instance,  the  two  halves  of  an  Australian  ant 
which  has  been  severed  in  the  middle  will  turn  upon  each  other 
and  immediately  engage  in  furious  battle.  Will  and  inteUigence 
are  therefore  not  confined  exclusively  to  the  brain. 


i6o  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Moreover,  just  as  the  policy  of  a  country  is  not 
invariable,  because  now  one  group,  now  another, 
assisted  by  circumstances,  events,  or  by  the  intelli- 
gence, good  management,  and  energy  of  its  chief, 
gets  the  upper  hand  and  is  in  a  position  to  enforce 
its  will,  so  the  brain  will  sometimes  change  its 
bearings.  Thus  it  may  happen  that  a  prodigal 
will  turn  into  a  miser ;  an  ultra-sentimental 
youth  will  in  his  later  years,  perhaps,  become  "  of 
the  earth  earthy";  the  optimist  may  become  a 
pessimist,  and  the  amiable  man  cantankerous. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  morose  will  become  gay, 
and  the  fiery  become  gentle  ;  the  dictatorial  will 
meekly  endure  contradiction,  and  the  idler  or 
dreamer  may  become  a  zealous  worker.  The 
reason  of  this  is  that  owing  to  time,  change  of 
environment,  a  different  state  of  health,  or  a  host 
of  other  circumstances,  the  cells  which  formerly 
were  the  strongest  have  become  less  strong,  or 
because  (which  is  not  quite  the  same  thing)  those 
which  were  weak  have  managed  to  develop. 
Therefore  we  may  say  that  not  only  our  abilities, 
but  also  our  feelings,  temper,  character  and  con- 
duct, depend  generally,  and  to  a  great  extent,  on 
the  condition,  vigorous  or  otherwise,  of  certain 
cells.  For  instance,  the  fact  that  some  brain  cells 
are  poisoned  is  sufficient  to  produce  madness. 
Even  a  few  drops  of  alcohol  may  suddenly  change 
our  whole  mental  outlook,  and  transform  a  gentle 
and  timid  man  into  a  ruihan  and  a  murderer. 

Every  cell  tends  indeed  to  be  all  that  it  can  be, 
it  truly  seeks  its  fullest  development,  and  is 
anxious  to  live  as  Nature  wishes  ;  but  if,  in  the 
struggle  for  existence,  certain  cells  are  weaker, 
they  will  evidently  be  forced  to  submit,  and  the 
man  as  a  whole  will  not  always  be  what  Nature 


ANSWERS  TO  OBJECTIONS  i6i 

desires.  Indeed,  the  man-as-a-whole  does  not 
always  seem  to  follow  the  way  pointed  out  by 
Nature,  but  the  "  fractional  man,"  that  is  to  say, 
every  component  part  of  the  whole,  every  cell, 
every  one  of  those  thousand  little  personalities 
which  go  to  make  up  the  total  personality,  does 
its  very  best  to  be  all  that  Nature  wishes.  If 
harmonious  development  does  not  take  place,  it 
is  because  the  struggle  for  existence  and  expansion 
goes  on  even  among  cells,  and  that  the  "  total 
will  "  is  not  strong  enough  to  school  all  the  little 
partial  wills,  and  to  enable  the  weak  ones  to  become 
stronger,  or  to  prevent  the  strong  from  crushing 
the  weak. 

We  are,  therefore,  up  to  a  certain  point,  the 
slaves  of  a  few  cells,  namely,  those  that  are  the 
strongest.  This  bondage  would  be  complete  and 
absolute  were  it  not  for  that  marvellous  power 
which  is  called  "  will."  ^ 

"  Will-power  "  enables  us  to  silence  any  of  the 
brain  cells  we  please,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
increase  the  activity  of  others.  The  mechanism 
of  attention  is  a  case  in  point.  Attention  is 
spontaneous  when  we  are  absorbed  in  something 
that  interests  us,  but  it  is  voluntary  when,  for 
instance,  we  force  ourselves  to  study  a  mathematical 
problem  which  bores  us,  or  when  we  make  an 
effort  to  follow  the  complicated  arguments  of  a 
prolix  lecturer.  In  cases  where  attention  is  sus- 
tained, all  the  brain  cells  whose  participation  is 
necessary  in  order  to  solve  the  problem,  to  under- 
stand the  lecturer,  etc.,  are  active,  distended  with 
blood,  and  consequently  full  of  life  and  energy, 
whilst  all  the  other  brain  cells  are  reduced  to  a  state 

*  By  "  will  "  we  mean  the  will-total,  that  is  to  say,  the  sum  of 
those  thousands  of  partial  wills  which  reside  in  the  ceils. 

II 


i62  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

of  somnolence  in  which  they  are  quiescent  and 
almost  entirely  inactive.  If  our  attention  is 
sufficiently  concentrated,  we  lose  all  sense  of  our 
surroundings,  forget  where  we  are,  and  are  either 
wholly  or  partially  unconscious  of  the  noises  that 
are  going  on  around  us ;  and  the  deeper  our 
absorption,  the  greater  the  effort  we  shall  have  to 
make  if  we  are  suddenly  obliged  to  change  the 
current  of  our  thoughts. 

What  attention  succeeds  in  doing  (and  attention 
is  only  a  manifestation  of  the  will)  can  also  be 
done  by  man's  will-power  in  general.  The  function 
of  the  will  is  to  discipline  the  cells  and  exact  instant 
obedience  from  them — that  is  to  say,  to  compel 
certain  cells  to  vibrate  immediately  when  required 
to  do  so,  and  for  just  as  long  as  is  necessary,  while 
the  others  are  reduced  to  a  state  of  immobility. 

Like  all  our  faculties  and  abilities,  will-power 
can  be  cultivated  and  developed.  In  saying  this, 
we  may  appear  at  first  sight  to  have  got  into  a 
vicious  circle.  For,  in  order  to  strengthen  our 
will,  we  must  first  have  the  will  to  do  it ;  that  is 
to  say,  in  order  to  increase  the  power  of  our  will, 
we  must  begin  by  having  some  will-power  to 
increase.  Happily,  that  is  always  the  case  (except 
in  certain  diseases — aboulia,  etc.).  We  all  have 
at  least  a  "  particle  "  of  will  in  us.  Therefore 
it  is  in  reality  only  a  question  of  taking  that  little 
quantity,  however  small  it  may  be,  and  cultivating 
it  properly  ;  with  some  perseverance  the  results 
will  be  surprising. 

With  the  reader's  permission,  we  will  transcribe 
the  following  maxims  from  an  old  notebook,  the 
leaves  of  which  are  already  yellow  with  age  : — 

"  In  order  to  develop  your  will,  all  that  you  have 
to  do  in  the  beginning  is  to  make  small  but  un- 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  163 

ceasingly  repeated  efforts.  For  example,  you  have 
just  taken  a  long  walk,  you  are  tired  ?  Do  not 
sit  down  immediately,  but  force  yourself  to  remain 
standing  a  few  minutes  longer.  You  are  thirsty  ? 
It  seems  as  though  your  tongue  was  glued  to 
your  palate  ?  Then  force  yourself  to  place  on  the 
table  the  glass  of  water  which  is  offered  to  you, 
admire  the  limpidity  of  the  liquid,  and  after  a 
time  take  little  sips,  do  not  empty  the  whole  cup 
at  one  gulp.  You  receive  a  letter  which  you  were 
expecting  with  impatience  ?  Do  not  immediately 
tear  open  the  envelope,  but  force  yourself  to  finish 
the  work  which  you  had  begun.  You  have  the 
bad  habit  of  stooping  when  reading  or  writing  ? 
Think  of  it  and  force  yourself  to  sit  up  at  once, 
without  waiting  to  finish  the  word  already  com- 
menced. In  the  morning  you  would  much  like  to 
remain  a  few  minutes  longer  in  your  warm  bed  ? 
Be  not  lazy,  force  yourself  to  rise  bravely  as  soon 
as  the  time  has  come,  winter  and  summer  alike, 
then  force  yourself  to  perform  conscientiously 
your  ablutions,  and  sit  down  without  dallying  to 
your  work.  Force  yourself  always  to  finish  work 
that  is  once  begun,  however  tedious  it  becomes. 
If  in  reading  or  translating  you  meet  with  a  word 
which  you  do  not  know  the  exact  meaning  of, 
force  yourself  to  get  up  and  fetch  your  dictionary. 
Force  yourself  to  listen  patiently  and  without  inter- 
ruption to  people  who  are  talking  to  you,  and 
to  take  an  interest  in  what  they  say,  especially 
if  they  speak  of  themselves.  Have  you  to  do 
one  special  thing  which  you  dislike  doing  very 
much  ?  Force  yourself  to  do  it  without  delay,  and 
thoroughly.  Have  you  toothache  ?  Do  not  post- 
pone, through  fear,  your  visit  to  the  dentist  imtil 
to-morrow  or  next  week.     Force  yourself  to  pay 


i64  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

the  visit  that  very  day  if  possible.  Do  you  feel 
impatience  rising  in  you  ?  Force  yourself  to  be 
calm.  If,  in  a  discussion,  an  angry  word  or  a 
sarcastic  remark  is  on  your  lips,  which  at  the 
moment  it  would  give  you  a  mischievous  satis- 
faction to  fling  at  your  opponent,  force  yourself 
to  hold  your  tongue.  Does  an  evil  thought  present 
itself  to  your  imagination  ?  Force  yourself  to 
impose  silence  at  once  on  those  cells  which  vibrate 
with  this  suggestion.  Pay  no  attention  to  them, 
and  do  not  argue  the  point,  for  a  discussion  would 
only  endow  them  with  fresh  strength  ;  a  greater 
quantity  of  blood  would  flow  into  them  and  they 
would  vibrate  with  more  energy  than  before. 
Simply  force  yourself  at  once  to  think  of  something 
else,  and  concentrate  all  your  attention  on  another 
subject.  Force  yourself  always  to  bring  the  maxi- 
mum of  attention  to  bear  on  what  you  are 
doing,  whether  it  be  work  of  importance  or  an 
amusement,  whether  you  are  reading  or  writing, 
thinking  or  conversing,  or  merely  playing  a  game. 
To  sum  up,  force  yourself  to  do  thoroughly 
and  without  delay  the  thing  which  must  be  done, 
the  act  which  must  be  performed.  This  thing, 
this  act  may  be  of  small  importance  in  itself, 
but  the  prompt  and  thorough  execution  of  it  is 
of  the  utmost  importance  for  your  own  moral 
training  and  the  development  of  your  will-power. 
It  is  by  these  means  (and  by  similar  efforts  which 
may  be  multiplied  indefinitely)  that  you  will  suc- 
ceed in  perfecting  your  will.  It  is  not  a  question 
of  performing  some  great  action  once  in  your  life- 
time— it  is  easy  to  be  a  hero  for  a  few  minutes — but 
it  is  a  question  of  doing  something  at  once  more 
modest  and  more  difficult ;  that  is,  to  force  yourself 
to  make  these  small  efforts  constantly  and  without 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  165 

getting  weary.  It  is  but  right  to  add  that  by 
practice  these  efforts  will  become  less  painful,  and  in 
the  end,  thanks  to  persistence,  they  will  become 
mechanical ;  at  the  same  time,  however,  bringing 
you  much  inward  satisfaction  caused  by  the  feeling 
of  strength  and  moral  value." 

Let  us  hear  what  J.  Payot  says  :  "  It  is  by 
innumerable  little  acts  such  as  these,  insignificant 
though  they  may  appear,  that  the  will  is  proved 
and  tempered — for  all  work  causes  growth.  Lack- 
ing the  opportunity  for  larger  efforts,  we  should 
be  performing  such  acts  at  every  hour  of  the  day, 
with  all  the  zest  and  thoroughness  of  which  we  are 
capable." 

To  return  to  the  subject  of  "  temptation "  : 
we  must  remember  that  the  law  of  association  of 
ideas  is  one  from  which  there  is  no  escape,  and  which 
therefore  can  always  be  counted  upon.  To  it 
more  especially,  then,  must  we  turn  for  help. 
Take  a  couple  of  examples  :  Are  we  on  the  point 
of  giving  way  to  a  dangerous  or  merely  ridiculous 
fit  of  anger  ?  Are  we  in  a  bad  temper  and  losing 
all  patience  ?  Let  us  make  a  determined  effort 
to  keep  our  attention  fixed  on  soothing  ideas, 
on  rational  considerations  ;  let  us  repeat  in  a  calm 
tone  a  few  lines  of  poetry  or  a  maxim  or  two  from 
Marcus  Aurelius.  Association  of  ideas  will  soon 
make  gentle  thoughts  predominate  in  our  brain. 

Are  we  prone  to  melancholy  and  depression, 
which  may  react  injuriously  on  our  work  and 
perhaps  on  our  health  ?  Let  us  hum  or  play 
a  merry  tune,  or  simply  force  ourselves  to  smile. 
This  make-believe  will  help  us  to  banish  our  de- 
pressing thoughts,  by  creating  or  stimulating  a 
cheerful  association  of  ideas. 

Lastly,  whatever  the  temptation  may  be  that  is 


i66  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

assailing  us,  let  us  picture  the  consequences  as 
vividly  as  possible  ;  let  us  think  of  the  morrow  ; 
let  us  bear  in  mind  the  displeasing  sensations  that 
will  be  ours  if  we  succumb,  the  shame  and  remorse 
at  having  "  done  such  a  thing  " — and  at  the  same 
time,  let  us  imagine  our  feeling  of  joy  on  issuing 
triumphant  from  the  struggle ;  a  joy  which  is 
always  experienced  when  we  overcome  difficulties 
and  give  proof  of  true  courage. 


Objection  : — "  This  morality  is  all  very  well  for  those  who 
are  gifted  with  health  and  strength,  intelligence,  and  fortune. 
It  would  never  do  for  those  of  low  degree,  the  weak,  the 
infirm,  the  '  poor  in  spirit.'  It  is  the  morality  of  a  few 
privileged  persons,  but  not  that  of  the  masses." 

Answer  : — This  is  a  mistake.  This  morality  is, 
on  the  contrary,  the  only  one  that  can  be  applied 
to  all  beings,  and  at  all  times.  It  has  existed  ever 
since  the  laws  of  Nature  became  what  they  are, 
and  it  will  exist  as  long  as  these  laws  are  not 
changed.  If  those  laws  have  been  from  all  time, 
this  morality  has  existed  from  all  time  also.  If  the 
laws  of  Nature  apply  to  all  living  beings,  this 
morality  applies  also  to  all  of  them.  If  those 
laws  know  no  exceptions,  this  morality  also 
knows  no  exceptions.  If  those  laws  apply  to  the 
strong  and  to  the  weak,  to  the  intelligent  and  to 
the  unintelligent,  to  the  rich  and  to  the  poor,  to 
the  healthy  and  to  the  sick,  this  morality  also 
applies  to  the  strong  and  to  the  weak,  to  the  intelli- 
gent and  to  the  unintelligent,  to  the  rich  and  to 
the  poor,  to  the  healthy  and  to  the  sick.  It  cannot 
he  otherwise,  seeing  that  this  morality  is  the  natural 
outcome  of  those  laws. 

A  sick  person  has  duties  to  fulfil.  The  first 
consists  in  obeying  uncomplainingly  the  orders  of 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  167 

his  doctor,  however  disagreeable  they  may  be.  He 
ought  also  to  show  himself  as  little  exacting  as 
possible,  repressing  fits  of  ill-temper  and  impatience, 
and  resisting  all  temptation  to  complain.  He 
ought  also  to  express  his  gratitude  to  those  who  are 
nursing  him.  In  this  way  he  will  be  able  to  give 
a  fine  example  of  patience,  gentleness,  and  courage. 
In  fine,  he  will  be  able  to  live  a  more  perfect 
inner  life,  a  life  of  fuller  introspection,  and  so 
turn  his  illness  to  good  account.  Often  illness  is 
a  school  from  which  a  man  issues  morally  stronger 
and  better.  After  having  suffered  ourselves,  we 
have  a  quicker  comprehension  of  suffering  in  others, 
and  our  heart  goes  out  more  generously  towards 
them.  If  we  wish  it,  illness  may  be  supremely 
useful  for  our  moral  development. 

As  to  the  feeble-minded,  they  should  make  a 
point  of  doing  all  that  they  can  do,  all  that  lies 
within  their  capacity.  It  is  obvious  that  they  will 
not  be  able  to  compete  with  a  Darwin,  a  Pasteur, 
a  Goethe,  or  an  Edison,  but  they  can  make  them- 
selves useful  by  performing  their  work  honestly 
and  thoroughly,  however  humble  it  may  be. 
They  will  thus  conform  to  the  tendency  of  the 
Universe,  and  will  help  Nature  to  live  her  life. 
The  "  weaker  vessels  "  must  remember  that  results 
are  nothing,  but  that  effort  is  everything.  There 
is  no  harm  in  failing,  but  what  is  wrong  is  neglecting 
to  do  all  that  is  necessary  to  ensure  success. 

Our  duties  are  limited  by  our  power  of  action, 
but  they  are  not  on  that  account  wholly  abolished. 

Horace  reads  us  an  excellent  lesson  in  one  of 
his  epistles  :  **  Though  you  may  never  enjoy  the 
keen  sight  of  a  Lynceus,  you  need  not  therefore 
despise  the  salve  which  will  heal  your  sore  eyes. 
The    hopelessness    of    rivalling    the    strength  *  of 


i68  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Glycon  is  no  reason  why  you  should  allow  your 
limbs  to  be  crippled  by  gout.  If  you  cannot  go 
very  far,  you  can  at  least  win  your  way  up  to  a 
certain  point." 

Is  it  the  poor  and  lowly  that  are  in  question  ? 
There  are  duties  for  them  as  there  are  for  the  rich. 
If  they  lack  the  opportunities  afforded  by  wealth 
and  rank,  they  can  do  as  much  or  even  more  by 
goodness  of  heart.  Are  not  frequent  examples  of 
patience  and  courage,  •  devotion,  self-denial,  and 
brotherly  love  being  given  by  the  poor  to  the  rich  ? 
Need  we  instance  the  lifeboat  crews  that  are  ready 
at  any  moment  to  face  danger  and  fatigue,  or  the 
rescuing  parties  who  volunteer  to  go  down  into 
mines  and  heroically  endeavour  to  save  their 
comrades  from  destruction  ?  Or  the  thousand 
and  one  little  services  which  are  constantly  being 
exchanged  amongst  the  poor,  such  as  looking  after 
the  neighbour's  children  while  she  is  away  at  her 
work  or  engaged  on  an  errand,  sitting  up  with  a 
sick  person  without  remuneration,  or  lending  food, 
clothing,  and  small  sums  of  money  ?  True  kind- 
ness is  indeed  infinitely  more  precious  and  more 
conducive  to  the  general  good  of  the  community 
than  power  and  riches. 

But  a  day  will  come  when  poverty  and  distress 
will  have  ceased  to  exist.  A  more  intelligent 
view  of  civilisation,  legislation  on  the  lines  indi- 
cated above  (p.  92,  note),  greater  mental  and 
moral  development,  a  better  understanding  of 
Nature  and  her  aims,  and,  above  all,  a  deeper, 
truer,  and  more  practical  sense  of  brotherhood, 
are  all  factors  that  will  gradually  bring  about  great 
changes  in  the  mental  attitude  of  nations  and 
individuals.  Everyone  will  then  be  in  a  position, 
by   means   of  honest  labour  performed  wdth   the 


ANSWERS   TO  OBJECTIONS  169 

general  welfare  chiefly  in  view,  to  earn  a  com- 
fortable living  during  his  youth  and  middle  age, 
besides  making  a  sure  provision  for  his  declining 
years  ;  and  all  alike  will  enjoy  periods  of  leisure, 
which  may  be  utilised  for  the  development  of 
the  individual  on  his  physical,  moral,  intellectual, 
and  sesthetic  sides,  as  well  as  for  the  social  pro- 
gress of  the  various  groups. 


Part   III 
Duties  and  Precepts 

ON  CERTAIN  DUTIES 

We  must  not  forget  that,  as  our  influence  and  the 
scope  of  our  activities  increase,  the  number  of  our 
duties  increases  in  like  measure. 
Hence  we  have  : — 

Duties  towards  ourselves. 

our   father,  mother,  and  grand- 
parents. 
„  ,,       our  brothers  and  sisters. 

„  ,,       the  other  members  of  our  family. 

„  „       all  those  who  are  concerning  them- 

selves with  our  education. 
,,  ,,       our  friends. 

of  husband  and  wife  towards  each  other, 
towards  our  children. 
„  ,,       the  persons  in  our  employ — that 

is  to  say,  all  those  who  work  for 
us  in  one  way  or  another,  and 
thus  contribute  to  our  welfare. 
,,  ,,       our    employers.     These    include 

the   duties  imposed  on  us  by 
our  profession. 
„  „       all  who  stand  in  need  of  our  help  : 

invalids,  waifs  and  strays,  aged 
cripples,    and    anyone   who   is 
morally,  mentally,  or  physically 
deficient. 
170 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  171 

Duties  arising  out  of  our  pecuniary  circumstances 

and  our  station  in  life. 

„      towards  our  particular  part  of  the  country 

(the   village   or  town  that   we 

live  in). 

„  „       our  country  in  the  larger  sense 

(the  nation  as  a  whole) . 
„      of    a    cosmopolitan    order    (towards    the 
entire  human  race), 
towards  Nature,  the  Whole. 

When  we  speak  of  the  duty  of  loving  and  serving 
one's  country,  that  does  not  mean  that  we  should 
try  to  restrict  the  liberty  of  other  countries,  impose 
our  will  upon  them,  or  take  possession  of  any  part 
of  their  territory.  In  this  as  in  all  similar  cases, 
our  duty  consists  in  developing  those  elements 
that  make  the  largest  and  best  contribution  to  the 
general  life  of  our  own  country  and  of  humanity 
at  large. 

Thus  a  list  of  our  duties  would  comprise  all 
duties  towards  ourselves  and  towards  all  the 
groups,  large  or  small,  of  which  we  form  part.  So 
that  a  complete  moral  code  can  be  nothing  else 
than  a  list  of  the  actions  that  are  conducive  to  the 
harmonious  development  and  complete  expansion 
of  the  individual  and  of  the  society  which  is  built 
up  of  all  these  groups. 

These  duties,  then,  all  tend  in  the  same  direction  ; 
they  really  have  one  single  object,  and  that  is  the 
greatest  expansion  of  the  greatest  number. 

*  *  * 

We  must  not  forget  that  among  the  duties 
towards  our  "  weaker  brethren  "  incumbent  on  us 
qua  group  are  included  duties  towards  criminals. 
We    should    endeavour    to    bring    offenders    back 


172  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

into  the  path  of  righteousness  by  implanting  in 
them  habits  of  order,  cleanhness,  etc.,  and  above 
all  by  setting  them  to  do  some  serious,  useful,  and 
regular  work  suited  to  each  man's  natural  ability 
and  intelligence.  For  is  not  work  the  best  of  all 
reforming  agencies  ? 

Lastly,  we  have  duties  with  respect  to  animals. 
Our  domestic  animals  should  be  treated  with 
kindness  and  their  wants  ungrudgingly  attended 
to.  As  for  undomesticated  animals,  our  duty 
may  perhaps  be  summed  up  in  a  single  sentence  : 
Cause  no  unnecessary  suffering. 


L.  Bourdeau  says  :  "  Man  being  part  of  the 
whole  from  which  he  is  derived,  and  into  which 
he  will  again  be  absorbed,  is  bound  to  follow,  as 
far  as  his  judgment  will  allow,  the  order  and  laws 
of  the  whole.  His  conduct  must  conform  to  the 
general  tendency  of  things.  He  will  thus  partici- 
pate in  the  universal  life,  not  only  passively  and  in 
ecstatic  vision,  but  actively  and  in  fact.  Although 
he  be  but  an  atom  in  the  Infinite,  yet  since  this 
atom  is  conscious,  endowed  with  intelligence  and 
will,  his  influence,  though  infinitesimal,  is  a  real 
thing,  and  contributes  to  the  series  of  effects  in  the 
same  way  as  in  the  ocean  every  liquid  molecule 
has  a  weight  of  its  own,  and,  by  the  pressure  which 
it  imparts  or  undergoes,  helps  to  maintain  the 
equihbrium  of  the  whole  vast  mass  of  water.  What 
gives  life  its  value  is  conscious  collaboration  in 
work  that  is  infinite  and  eternal.  If,  according 
to  a  beautiful  thought  of  Aristotle,  the  true  worth 
of  a  being  can  be  measured  by  the  greatness  of 
his  task,  and  increases  with  the  extension  of  his 
duties,   what  nobler   use   of  his   faculties   can  be 


DUTIES  AND   PRECEPTS  173 

proposed  to  a  rational  being,  to  what  loftier  object 
can  he  aspire,  than  to  identify  himself  with  the 
Infinite  Being  (the  Whole)  and  to  take  part  in  the 
universal  life  by  turning  his  own  powers  of  action 
in  the  same  direction  ?  " 

We  know  what  Nature  wants.  We  say  it  again  : 
Nature  desires  the  most  active,  intelligent,  and 
moral  life.  She  wants  the  most  complete  expan- 
sion, the  harmonious  development  of  the  whole 
being.  She  wishes  for  a  physical,  intellectual, 
aesthetic,  moral,  and  social  life  which  shall  ever 
grow  broader  and  stronger,  more  intense  and  more 
complete.  She  wants  us  to  be  at  every  moment 
all  that  it  is  possible  for  us  to  be.  She  wants  the 
enlargement  of  life — that  is  to  say,  she  would  have 
us  act,  work,  feel,  understand,  and  love,  always 
more  and  better.  It  is  her  desire  that  each  of  us 
should  extend  his  sympathy  to  all  other  beings. 
She  wants  our  hearts  to  become  wide  enough  to 
embrace  the  whole  Universe. 

Let  us  obey  Nature,  let  us  obey  the  Whole,  not 
only  at  the  demand  of  reason,  but  also  and  especially 
out  of  love.  Let  us  love  the  Whole  with  a  great 
and  passionate  love.  Let  us  pursue  the  object 
which  it  pursues,  let  us  go  wheresoever  it  goes, 
let  us  help  the  Whole  to  live  its  great  life  in  the 
regular,  normal  way. 

Let  us  work  with  the  Universe  and  towards  the 
same  ends  :  this  is  the  task  that  lies  before  us. 


MISCELLANEOUS  PRECEPTS 

Obey  the  laws  of  hygiene  in  order  to  preserve 
your  health  and  strength,  and  to  be  able  to  be  useful 
to  others  all  the  longer. 


174  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Dr  J.  H^ricourt :  *'  The  science  of  hygiene,  so 
neglected  or  so  poorly  represented  in  our  system 
of  education,  forms  the  very  groundwork  of  morality. 
Hygiene  lays  down  the  rules  that  safeguard  the 
health  of  each  individual,  hygiene  turns  the  struggle 
against  our  passions  into  a  regular  daily  exercise  ; 
it  supplies  a  valuable  incentive  for  the  will,  and  also 
teaches  the  true  meaning  of  solidarity  by  showing 
what  a  terrible  price  may  have  to  be  paid  for  any 
offence  against  this  grand  principle,  the  keystone 
of  all  societies  to  come/'  ^ 


L.  Bourdeau  :  "  Every  act  in  harmony  with  the 
laws  of  life,  being  a  condition  or  function  of  its 
development,  tends  to  bring  about  an  enlargement 
of  life.  Every  act  contrary  to  the  laws  of  life 
tends  to  cramp  it  within  narrower  bounds  and  has  a 
disturbing  and  prejudicial  effect  on  its  orderly 
development ;  it  also  carries  its  own  penalty, 
beginning  with  threats  and  ending  in  active 
repression.*' 


Digest  well ;  that  is  to  say,  assimilate  your 
nourishment  properly,  and  let  it  be  simple  and 
wholesome.  Do  not  eat  too  much  or  too  little, 
and  above  all  masticate  sufficiently.  Dr  F.  Reg- 
nault  says  :  "  In  all  these  cases  (where  the  food 
has  not  been  sufficiently  masticated)  the  result 
is   the   same.     The   gastric   juices   are   unable   to 

1  Anyone  who  still  has  doubts  as  to  the  utility  of  hygiene  may 
be  reminded  that  in  England,  where  for  some  years  past  it  has 
been  held  in  high  esteem,  the  death-rate,  which  was  80  per 
thousand  from  1660  to  1679,  had  fallen  to  17  in  1889,  and  is  at 
the  present  time  only  14  or  15  per  thousand.  A  similar  decrease, 
due  to  the  same  cause,  has  taken  place  in  Norway  and  Denmark. 
In  France^  the  death-rate  oscillates  between  20  and  21  per 
thousand. 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  175 

deal  with  food  that  has  not  been  previously  reduced 
to  the  requisite  state  of  pulp.  Consequently  it 
ferments  in  the  stomach  and  brings  about  intestinal 
disorders,  being  one  of  the  most  potent  causes  of 
arthritis  in  all  its  various  forms."  Let  us  also 
remember  that  the  saliva,  in  order  to  do  its  work 
properly,  must  be  intimately  blended  with  the 
food.  This  process  can  only  be  carried  out  thor- 
oughly in  the  mouth,  and  requires  a  certain  amount 
of  time.^ 


Dr  Jacquet  advocates  careful  mastication  as  a 
means  of  combating  dyspepsia,  obesity,  gout, 
eczema,  arterio-sclerosis,  etc. 


Consult  your  dentist  at  least  twice  a  year.  If 
your  teeth  are  few  or  if  they  are  decayed,  you  will 
masticate  badly  and  digest  badly. 


Avoid  alcohol  under  all  its  forms.  Drink  water 
that  has  been  boiled  and  the  microbes  of  which 
have  been  destroyed  in  the  process.  Water  is 
the  natural  drink  of  all  animals,  including  man. 


If  we  may  be  permitted,  we  will  recall  briefly 
the  evils  of  alcoholism,  remembering  that  a  man 
who  is  never  intoxicated  may  yet  be  an  alcoholic 
subject  if  he  "  drinks  "  every  day,  even  though 
it  be  moderately.  Alcohol,  when  taken  in  small 
doses,  does  not  go  to  the  head  (or  very  little,  thanks 
to  habit),  but  it  carries  on  its  destructive  work 
just  the  same.  Dr  Weill-Mantou  says  (we  epitom- 
ise) :  "  Drunkards  whose  failing  may  not  be  openly 
exhibited   to    the   public   view,    nevertheless   help 

*  See  on  this  subject  The  A  B  C  of  our  Nutrition,  by  Fletcher 
(New  York). 


176  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

to  swell  the  ranks  of  consumptives,  or  succumb 
when  they  are  still  young  to  cirrhosis  of  the  liver, 
to  diseases  of  the  kidneys,  heart,  or  arteries,  caused 
by  the  premature  enfeeblement  and  decay  of 
those  organs,  and  they  beget  children  whose  vital 
power  is  weakened  even  before  their  birth.  The 
deadly  effect  of  the  poison  makes  itself  felt  in 
every  organ  of  the  body  and  throughout  the  nervous 
system.  .  .  .  Alcoholism  becomes  a  factor  that 
aggravates  all  sickness,  wounds,  and  operations.^ 
Not  only  does  it  cause  deterioration  in  the  indi- 
vidual, but  it  strikes  him  in  his  offspring,  and  leads 
to  the  degeneration  of  the  race.  For  the  idiots 
and  epileptics,  weaklings  and  chronic  invalids, 
potential  criminals  and  lunatics  that  are  yearly 
brought  into  the  world,  alcohol  is  largely  respon- 
sible." 


Legrain  (quoted  by  Dr  Maurice  Boigey)  conducted 
an  inquiry  into  the  effects  of  drink  as  shown  in 
the  case  of  215  families,  comprising  508  persons. 
After  the  lapse  of  one  generation  there  were  168 
physical  or  mental  degenerates.  After  two  genera- 
tions, degenerates  were  to  be  found  in  every  one 
of  the  families.  And  finally,  in  the  third  generation, 
only  17  members  were  left,  all  of  them  suffering 
from  debility  or  retarded  development. 


Alcohol  predisposes  to  congestion,  especially 
during  the  seasons  of  extreme  heat  and  cold. 
Therefore  it  may  be  easily  seen  how  foolish  it  is  to 
drink  alcohol  in  winter,  in  order  to  "  warm  one- 
self," as  the  saying  is.  Rather,  drink  tea  or  coffee 
in  moderate  quantities,  hot  milk,  or  chocolate. 

*  Even  the  smallest  dose  of  alcohol  paralyses  the  beneficial 
action  of  the  phagocytes  (Metchnikofif)- 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  177 

Above  all,  consume  no  liqueurs  or  bitters. 
"  Liqueurs  are  dangerous,  not  only  by  reason  of 
their  alcohol,  but  more  particularly  because  they 
contain  extracts  of  aniseed,  badiane,  absinth,  fennel, 
mint,  hyssop,  angelica,  coriander,  balm,  etc. 
Highly  toxic  in  quality,  these  essences  add  their 
own  evils  to  those  of  alcohol,  and,  as  has  been  said, 
they  poison  that  which  is  already  poisonous.  All 
liqueurs  are  condemned  without  appeal  by  hygiene." 
(Dr  J.  Weill-Mantou.) 


Beware  also  of  medicinal  wines.     Many  drunkards 
(especially  women)  have  begun  with  them. 


Never  give  wine  or  beer  to  children,  not  even  a 
drop  ;  still  less  spirits.  As  for  young  men,  alcohol 
in  all  its  forms  is  morally  dangerous  (you  under- 
stand what  I  mean)  long  before  it  becomes  phy- 
sically so. 


We  should  also  be  on  our  guard  against  opium. 
Opium-eaters  and  opium-smokers  soon  suffer  from 
the  effects  of  the  drug.  Here  is  a  brief  summary 
by  Dr  Helme  of  the  evil  effects  produced  by  opium, 
whatever  the  form  in  which  it  is  taken. 

The  blood  circulates  more  slowly  through  the 
system  and  becomes  thicker  and  more  glutinous. 
Less  activity  will  be  shown  by  the  liver,  that  hard- 
working organ  which  acts  as  a  filter  for  poisons  ; 
the  kidneys,  which  have  been  incessantly  occupied 
in  carrying  off  toxic  substances  in  over-large 
quantities,  will  close  their  doors  ;  the  heart,  which 
has  been  so  excited  under  the  influence  of  the  drug, 
will  "  go  lame  "  like  an  overdriven  horse,  and  heart 
stoppages   will  be  the  result.     Antitoxic   serums 

12 


178  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

being  no  longer  produced  on  account  of  the  benumb- 
ing of  the  cells,  the  system  is  incapable  of  resistance 
and  lies  at  the  mercy  of  any  bacteria  that  may  come 
along — ordinary  influenza,  dysentery,  or  inter- 
mittent fever.  As  for  the  brain,  it  imperceptibly 
loses  touch  with  realities  and  gradually  develops  a 
"kink  "  which  induces  topsy-turvy  thinking.  The 
names  of  De  Quincey  and  Coleridge  are  often 
brought  up  in  this  connection.  But  De  Quincey 
used  to  write  in  his  lucid  intervals,  and  in  his  re- 
miniscences some  allowance  must  be  made  for 
exaggeration.  As  for  Coleridge,  we  see  his  genius 
palpably  diminishing  and  losing  its  lustre  as  the 
doses  of  poison  are  increased. 

We  may  observe,  by  the  way,  that  man  is  the  only 
living  creature  that  voluntarily  absorbs  poison 
into  his  system.  Even  plants  are  more  sensible 
than  we  are  in  this  respect.  Indeed,  Lilienfeld 
and  others  have  shown  by  their  experiments  on 
peas,  beans,  sunflowers,  etc.,  that  the  roots  of 
plants  shun  poisonous  substances,  whereas  they  are 
attracted  by  anything  that  provides  wholesome 
food  for  them. 


Breathe  well.  That  is  to  say,  absorb  the  necessary 
amount  of  oxygen.  Spend  all  the  time  you  possibly 
can  in  the  open  air.  Let  your  room  always  be 
properly  ventilated.  Leave  your  window  open 
all  night  long,  winter  and  summer  alike,  without, 
however,  exposing  yourself  to  draughts. 


You  will  understand  the  necessity  of  thoroughly 
ventilating  your  room,  if  you  remember  that  every 
twenty-four  hours  10,000  litres  of  air  pass  into  your 
lungs  in  order  to  furnish  the  necessary  quantity 
of  oxygen. 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  179 

Dr  P6ter  says  forcibly  :  "  It  is  in  this  stagnant 
air  (of  the  bedroom),  saturated  with  carbonic 
acid  and  all  kinds  of  other  vapours  arising  from 
pulmonary  exhalation  as  well  as  the  secretions 
of  the  skin,  that  the  lungs  are  '  soaked  '  all  night, 
as  in  a  sort  of  respiratory  pickle.  Accordingly, 
during  the  early  hours  of  morning,  when  the  outer 
air  is  so  pure  that  the  mere  breathing  of  it  is 
delicious,  our  bedroom  air  is  repulsively  fetid. 
Inhaled  and  re-inhaled  without  intermission  by 
our  respiratory  organs,  it  is  no  longer  breathed  air, 
but  ruminated  air."  The  air  in  your  dwelling 
ought  to  be  day  and  night  as  pure  as  the  outer  air. 

Let  as  much  sun  and  light  into  your  room  as 
possible.  The  sun  is  a  powerful  agent  for  the 
destruction  of  germs,  and  light  also  stimulates 
cellular  activity.  To  be  convinced  of  this,  re- 
member the  pallor,  the  lack  of  vitality  and  general 
weediness  of  individuals  who  live  in  darkness. 
Every  dark  locality  is  insanitary. 


Go  into  the  country  in  order  to  breathe  pure  air, 
less  charged  with  bacteria,  for  it  is  in  human 
agglomerations  that  microbes  swarm.  Examples  : 
It  has  been  found,  as  the  result  of  six  months' 
analysis,  that  the  air  in  the  Rue  de  Rivoli  contains 
on  an  average  3220  bacteria  per  cubic  metre, 
whereas  in  the  Pare  Montsouris  the  average  is 
only  250.  The  microbes  of  the  air  are  mainly 
found  close  to  the  ground  :  if  we  climb  only  to  a 
height  of  82  metres  in  the  middle  of  Paris  (the  top 
of  the  Pantheon),  instead  of  the  3220  bacteria  of 
the  Rue  de  Rivoli  we  shall  only  find  198.  Above  an 
altitude  of  4000  metres  there  are  no  bacteria  at  all. 
On  the  open  sea  about  100  kilometres  from  the  coast, 
only  6  bacteria  are  found  per  10  cubic  metres. 


i8o  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Sleep  as  long  as  it  is  necessary  but  not  longer, 
and  when  the  moment  to  rise  has  come,  jump  out 
of  bed  at  once  and  do  not  dally.  The  hours  of 
sleep  required  vary  according  to  one's  age,  occupa- 
tion, state  of  health,  etc.  ;  you  must  find  out  the 
amount  that  suits  you  best.  The  main  thing  is  not 
to  waste  precious  time  by  dozing  idly  in  bed. 


Do  Swedish  exercises  for  a  short  time  every  day, 
and  your  limbs  will  remain  supple.  Engage  in  all 
outdoor  sports :  tennis,  cycling,  walking,  swim- 
ming, sculling,  etc.  Everyone  ought  to  play  tennis : 
grown  men  and  women  as  well  as  young  people. 
(For  the  reasons  of  this  recommendation,  see 
UExercice  chez  les  Adultes,  by  Dr  F.  Lagrange.) 

Moderation,  however,  should  be  carefully  ob- 
served. Stop  at  once  when  you  begin  to  feel 
tired.  Do  not  overtask  your  physical  strength. ^ 
piln  short,  you  should  attach  neither  too  much  nor 
too  little  importance  to  physical  exercise.  Devote 
the  right  amount  of  time  to  it  but  no  more.  Take 
just  as  much  exercise  as  will  keep  you  fit,  lively  and 
strong,  impart  grace  to  your  movements,  and  render 
you  more  capable  of  brain-work,  thus  delaying  the 
onset  of  old  age.  For  is  it  not  one  of  our  duties 
to  preserve  our  faculties  intact  as  long  as  possible  ? 

Let  your  body  always  be  very  clean.  Cold  baths 
(the  "  tub  ")  are  not  sufficient.  Hot  baths  and 
much  soap  are  also  necessary.  Over  two  pounds 
of  sweat,  in  the  form  of  invisible  perspiration,  are 
thrown  off  by  an  adult  of  middle  height  in  twenty- 

1  It  was  already  known  to  Galen  that  excessive  physical 
exercise,  especially  of  a  violent  kind,  has  an  injurious  effect  on 
the  health  and  is  liable  to  create  a  diathesis.  (A  person  is  said 
to  be  suffering  from  diathesis  when  he  shows  a  frequent  tendency 
to  contract  some  illness  or  other.) 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  i8i 

four  hours  ;  and  naturally  this  quantity  increases 
with  heat,  muscular  work,  violent  exercise,  etc. 
Now,  what  is  sweat  ?  It  is  a  mixture  of  water, 
mineral  salts,  and  excrementitious  products  :  urates, 
lactates,  etc.  Therefore  you  see  the  necessity  of 
taking  hot  baths  often  and  of  using  soap  without 
stint.  A  dirty  man  is  offensive  to  the  eye,  and  still 
more  so  to  the  nose. 

But  that  is  not  all.  "  The  importance  of  the 
respiratory  and  eliminatory  functions  of  the  skin 
is  so  great  that  if  they  happen  to  be  suppressed, 
death  will  very  soon  supervene.  For  instance,  an 
animal  covered  with  a  coat  of  airproof  varnish 
rapidly  dies.  For  the  same  reason  an  individual 
suffering  from  superficial  but  extensive  burns 
(after  having  been  scalded  by  boiling  water,  for 
instance)  will  almost  infallibly  succumb.  Thus  we 
can  realise  the  danger  and  disadvantages  of  dirt, 
which  diminishes  this  activity  of  the  skin."  (Dr 
Weill-Mantou.) 


And  what  about  the  microbes  ?  Your  skin  is  in- 
fested and  infected  by  them.  Judge  for  yourself. 
Dr  Remlinger  made  fifty  soldiers  take  baths,  and 
calculated  the  number  of  microbes  (saprophytic 
and  pathogenetic)  left  by  each  of  them  in  the  water. 
The  average  was  550,000,000.  The  lowest  figure 
was  85,000,000,  and  the  highest  1,212,000,000.  Get 
rid  of  this  flora. 


Wash  your  hands  frequently  ;  always  before  a 
meal,  and  immediately  after  all  dirty  work.  And  do 
not  forget  to  keep  your  finger-nails  clean.  Never 
touch  face,  lips,  or  nose  with  the  hands. 

Dr  A.  Weiss  says :  "  It  appears  to  be  a  well- 


i82  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

established  fact  that  certain  infectious  diseases 
are  mainly  introduced  into  the  system  though 
the  alimentary  canal.  At  any  rate,  whole  hospital 
staffs  have  been  known  to  escape  cholera,  for 
example,  because  they  took  the  simple  precaution 
of  washing  the  hands  and  face  before  meals,  whilst 
other  hospitals  where  this  was  not  done  suffered 
heavily." 

Wash  your  hair  regularly  ;    once  a  month   at 
the  least. 


Cleanse  your  mouth  night  and  morning,  especially 
at  night.  Tiny  particles  of  food  lodged  there  will 
ferment,  and  microbes  multiply  rapidly  on  the 
teeth,  the  gums,  the  tongue — in  all  parts  of  the 
mouth,  in  fact,  which  for  them  takes  the  place  of 
a  damp,  hot  conservatory.  It  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  expel  them  at  least  twice  a  day.  For  this 
cleansing  a  good  tooth-soap  is  preferable  to  powders, 
pastes,  or  liquids.  Soap  is  the  only  composition 
which,  without  hurting  the  enamel,  will  remove 
that  gluey  deposit  which  forms  on  the  teeth.  Very 
little  soap  is  required.  It  is  also  advisable  to 
rinse  the  mouth  after  each  meal. 


Never  make  a  child  kiss  a  sick  person,  or  even 
one  with  a  cold.  For  that  matter,  I  do  not  see 
the  necessity  of  bringing  the  lips  of  a  little  child 
in  contact  with  the  cheeks  (more  or  less  covered 
with  visible  or  invisible  perspiration,  with  microbes, 
etc.)  of  a  grown-up  person.  This  performance 
is  nearly  always  boring,  and  rightly  so,  to  the 
child,  and  is  not  always  agreeable  to  the  older 
person,  on  whose  cheeks  the  little  mouth  sometimes 
leaves  sticky  traces. 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  183 

Do  not  smoke.  Smoking  disturbs  the  action 
of  the  heart,  dulls  the  eyesight,  discolours  the 
teeth,  may  induce  cancer  of  the  tongue  or  lips, 
and  runs  away  with  money  that  might  be  more 
usefully  spent.  And  then,  why  become  the  slave 
of  a  habit  ? 


If  you  are  ill,  nurse  yourself  conscientiously, 
but  do  not  make  a  great  fuss  over  the  least  little 
ailment.     Do  not  coddle  yourself. 


Imitate  Nature  and  aim  as  she  does  at  a  life 
ever  higher  and  more  active. 


L.  Bourdeau  :  "  The  Universe  may  be  conceived 
as  an  immense  being,  *  The  Great  All '  of  the 
Stoics,  the  inexhaustible  source  of  energy  whose 
might  is  displayed  in  the  double  infinite  of  space 
and  time.  This  being,  which  comprises  everything, 
cannot  develop  its  attributes  in  all  their  diversity 
except  by  differentiation — that  is,  by  producing  a 
series  of  individual  beings ;  because  without  them 
its  existence  would  remain  vague,  uniform,  and 
indeterminate.  In  order  to  realise  the  fullness  of 
its  life  the  unity  must  be  split  up  into  plurality." 

Therefore  let  us  constantly  remember  that  each 
of  us  is  one  of  these  units,  which  contributes  to 
the  life  of  the  Whole  by  its  own  work,  its  own 
efforts  and  activity. 


The  Whole  constitutes  an  immense  Society  of 
which  each  of  us  is  a  member.  We  ought  to  be 
loyal  to  this  Society,  and  contribute  to  its  develop- 
ment. You  are  true  to  the  little  societies  to  which 
you  belong;  why  not  be  true  also  to  the  Great 
Society  ? 


i84  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Ought  we  not  to  march  in  the  same  direction  as 
the  Universe  ?  Ought  we  not  to  help  the  Whole 
to  live  its  grand  life  ? 

We  obey  the  rules  of  the  associations  to  which  we 
belong ;  should  we  not,  then,  obey  the  laws  of  the 
Universe,  the  greatest  of  all  associations  ? 

We  love  the  associations  of  which  we  form  part, 
and  the  Whole  is  surely  the  noblest  of  all  associations ; 
ought  we  not,  then,  to  love  it  with  all  our  heart  ? 


Love  the  Whole  with  all  your  intelligence,  with 
all  your  heart,  with  all  your  imagination.  Love 
Nature  in  her  entirety.  Come  out  of  your  egotism 
in  order  to  live  the  universal  life. 


L.  Bourdeau  :  "  We  must  love  more  particularly 
what  is  general  and  permanent  in  the  world,  what 
is  best  and  least  precarious  :  beauty  in  Nature  and 
in  art,  truth  in  science,  morality  in  conduct,  the 
public  good  in  one's  own  country,  the  power  of 
life  which  glorifies  the  Universe.  He  who  enlarges 
his  heart,  and,  without  scorning  the  lesser  affections, 
fills  it  with  those  great  passions,  will  find  in  them  a 
perennial  source  of  joy,  a  constant  object  for  his 
efforts,  consolation  in  his  trials,  and  the  full  develop- 
ment of  his  faculties." 


In  the  towns  we  are  not  sufficiently  near  to 
Nature ;  go,  then,  as  often  as  possible  to  the  country 
(I  mean  the  real  country). 


Your  brain  has  need  of  exercise  like  all  your 
organs.  If  you  do  not  exercise  your  arm,  if  you 
carry  it  in  a  sling  for  several  years,  it  will  waste 
away ;  if  your  brain  remains  inactive,  it  will 
resemble  your  helpless  arm. 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  185 

Your  will  mustgbe  strong  and  stable.  If  it  be 
not  so,  you  must  cultivate  it  without  losing  heart, 
and  instead  of  a  sickly,  ill-developed  plant,  it 
will  gradually  become  a  noble  tree  with  roots 
firmly  set,  fine  spreading  branches,  and  luscious 
fruit.      By  "  will,"  I  do  not  mean  obstinacy. 


Do  not  forget  that  everything  you  read,  every 
word  you  speak  or  hear,  every  thought,  every 
gesture,  leaves  an  impression  in  your  brain  that 
nothing  can  ever  efface. 


Be  methodical  in  all  things.  That  will  lighten 
your  labour  and  effect  a  saving  in  that  most  precious 
commodity,  time. 


Do  everything  thoroughly,  and  as  well  as  possible. 


If  your  work  is  badly  done,  it  is  as  though  it 
had  not  been  done  at  all.  Begin  it  again,  once, 
twice,  thrice,  as  often  as  is  necessary.  Above  all, 
do  not  become  discouraged. 


Always  give  the  maximum  of  attention  and  energy 
to  everything  you  do,  but  without  undue  haste. 
Work  done  in  a  hurry  cannot  be  serious.  Nature 
never  hurries,  but  she  never  stops  either  :  imitate 
her. 


Epictetus  :  "  Attention  is  necessary  for  every- 
thing. Have  you  ever  seen  anything  in  life  which 
was  better  done  by  being  carelessly  done  ?  " 

Without  attention  you  are  like  the  drop  of 
water  carried  on  by  the  current,  which  sees  nothing 
of  the  country  through  which  it  passes. 


i86  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Your  education  is  not  finished  when  you  leave 
school  :  it  lasts  all  your  life.  Never  cease  to 
learn.  If  you  do  not  continue  to  learn  you  will 
forget  what  you  already  know. 


Confucius :  "  Acquire  new  knowledge  whilst 
ruminating  the  old,  and  you  may  become  a  teacher 
of  others." 

Learn  little  at  a  time,  but  learn  it  well  and 
thoroughly,  so  that  you  need  not  return  to  it 
again.  Add  only  one  or  two  little  stones  at  a 
time  to  your  edifice,  but  secure  them  firmly. 


During  a  short  life  you  cannot  learn  everything 
perfectly.  Try,  however,  to  obtain  a  rudimentary 
knowledge  of  all  things. 


Your  intellectual  development  would  not  be 
complete  if  you  cultivated,  for  instance,  only  science 
or  literature  ;  you  must  also  attend  to  the  arts  : 
drawing,  painting,  sculpture,  music,  etc.  As  I 
said  before,  it  is  impossible  to  be  at  the  same  time 
a  great  scientist,  a  great  writer,  a  great  poet,  a 
great  painter,  and  a  great  sculptor,  but  you  may 
have  a  sufficient  smattering  of  these  things  to  be 
able  to  love  and  appreciate  them  all.  Your  intel- 
lectual life  ought  to  be  as  complete  and  intense  as 
possible. 


From  a  practical  point  of  view,  and  in  order  to 
make  yourself  truly  useful,  it  is  necessary,  whilst 
seeking  to  know  all,  to  specialise  in  some  direction. 
In  the  centre  of  your  castle  you  must  erect  a  high 
tower.      But    remember    that    this    massive    and 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  187 

elevated  tower  will  only  look  noble  if  it  rises  in 
the  midst  of  buildings  which,  although  of  smaller 
size,  are  solidly  built  and  large  enough  to  combine 
with  it  into  one  harmonious  whole. 


In  spite  of  all  your  efforts,  you  will  always  find 
plenty  of  people  more  accomplished  than  yourself. 
Do  not  be  ashamed  of  knowing  less  than  they. 
The  only  thing  you  need  be  ashamed  of  is  wasting 
your  time. 

Strive  to  develop  and  refine  your  Ego,  the  better 
to  serve  mankind.  For  the  more  you  know,  the 
greater  will  be  your  usefulness,  the  keener,  nobler, 
and  more  numerous  your  intellectual  pleasures. 


Every  effort  that  helps  in  the  preservation  or 
development  of  life,  in  a  material  as  well  as  in  a 
moral  and  intellectual  sense,  may  be  considered 
useful  work,  for  expansion  on  every  side  must  be 
made  possible  to  the  individual.  Ploughmen, 
bakers,  masons,  teachers,  physicians,  men  of 
science,  etc.,  are  therefore  doing  work  that  benefits 
mankind,  whereas  distillers  and  vendors  of  alcohol 
are  doing  harm,  because  their  work  tends  to  diminish 
the  sum  of  life. 


L.  Bourdeau :  "  Thanks  to  the  long-enduring 
consequences  of  his  activity,  each  man  leaves 
behind  him  an  abiding  mark  of  his  sojourn  in  the 
groups  of  which  he  was  a  member.  All  the  useful 
work  he  has  accomplished  in  the  course  of  his  life, 
all  the  generous  sentiments  he  has  experienced 
himself  or  inspired  in  others,  the  beauty  he  has 
apprehended  or  brought  into  being,  the  truths 
he  has  discovered  or  disseminated,  the  just  and 


i88  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

virtuous  deeds  that  he  has  done — all  this  is  pro- 
ductive of  happy  consequenes  which  spread  further 
and  further,  entering  into  the  common  patrimony 
of  mankind  and  swelling  the  treasure  of  civilisation. 
In  this  way  he  discharges  what  Manou  calls  his 
'  ancestral  debt,'  meaning  that  every  man  has 
to  pay  for  benefits  received  by  transmitting  the 
like  in  his  turn.  On  the  other  hand,  all  the  evil 
he  has  done,  all  the  trouble  he  has  caused,  the 
unseemly  thoughts  and  false  conceptions  that  he 
has  harboured,  the  bad  examples  he  has  set  and 
the  social  disturbances  he  has  provoked — these 
things  are  not  only  hurtful  to  himself,  his  family 
and  his  contemporaries,  but  inflict  lasting  injury 
on  future  generations,  who  will  be  obliged,  at  the 
cost  of  much  suffering,  to  rid  themselves  of  an 
element  so  fruitful  in  mischief.  There  is  no  act 
of  ours,  therefore,  which  does  not  help  to  create 
a  set  of  conditions  either  favourable  or  unfavourable 
to  life  in  the  future.  Whosoever  leads  a  life  in 
conformity  with  the  laws  of  reason  adds  to  the 
sum  of  human  progress :  the  workman  by  his 
labour,  the  loving  heart  by  its  tenderness,  the 
artist  by  his  ideal  of  beauty,  the  scientist  by  his 
researches,  the  good  man  by  his  virtues,  the  philan- 
thropist by  his  benevolence  and  active  charity. 
Civilisation  is  made  up  of  this  multitude  of  small 
gains  which  are  achieved  one  by  one  through  the 
daily  efforts  of  each  human  being." 

Develop  your  memory,  but  not  at  the  expense 
of  your  judgment  and  reason. 


In  order  to  begin  your  work  in  the  morning 
without  wasting  precious  time,  without  hesitating 
between  several  things  to  do,  it  is  useful  to  prepare 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  189 

in  the  evening  before  you  go  to  bed  a  list  of  the 
things  which  ought  to  be  done  the  next  day.  On 
that  list  you  will  put  down  the  different  items  of 
work  which  must  claim  your  attention,  as  well  as 
the  visits  to  be  paid,  the  letters  to  be  written, 
etc.  ;  and  unless  quite  exceptional  circumstances 
arise  (which  rarely  happens)  you  must  not  retire 
to  rest  until  you  have  carried  out  your  programme. 

Activity  which  is  devoid  of  all  method  and 
wanders  aimlessly  from  one  thing  to  another  has 
the  fallacious  appearance  of  work  but  is  really 
valueless  ;   it  is  only  empty  bustle. 


Do  not  despair  because  you  have  failed  in  an 
enterprise.  If  you  have  made  every  effort  to 
succeed,  that  is  sufficient.  Your  efforts  will  prob- 
ably be  more  profitable  to  you  in  reference  to 
your  moral  progress  than  the  success  of  your  enter- 
prise would  have  been. 

Epictetus  :  "  Do  not  be  discouraged,  but  imitate 
the  gymnastic  masters  who,  as  soon  as  a  young 
man  is  knocked  down,  order  him  to  get  up  and 
continue  to  fight." 


Marcus  Aurelius  :  "  Do  not  give  way  to  dejection, 
disappointment,  or  despair,  if  you  do  not  always 
succeed  in  doing  everything  according  to  the  laws 
of  reason.     If  you  have  failed,  begin  again." 


Confucius  :  "It  matters  not  what  you  learn, 
but  when  once  you  try  to  learn  a  thing  you  must 
never  give  it  up  until  you  have  mastered  it.  It 
matters  not  what  you  inquire  into,  but  when  you 
inquire  into  a  thing  you  must  never  give  it  up 


190  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

until  you  thoroughly  understand  it.  It  matters 
not  what  you  try  to  think  out,  but  when  once  you 
try  to  think  out  a  thing  you  must  never  give  it 
up  until  you  have  got  what  you  want.  It  matters 
not  what  you  try  to  sift  out,  but  when  once  you 
try  to  sift  out  a  thing  you  must  never  give  it  up 
until  you  have  sifted  it  out  clearly  and  distinctly. 
It  matters  not  what  you  try  to  carry  out,  but  when 
once  you  try  to  carry  out  a  thing  you  must  never 
give  it  up  until  you  have  done  it  thoroughly  and 
well.  If  another  man  can  succeed  by  one  effort,  you 
will  use  a  hundred  efforts.  If  another  man  can  suc- 
ceed by  ten  efforts,  you  will  use  a  thousand  efforts. 
"  Let  a  man  really  proceed  in  this  manner,  and, 
though  dull,  he  will  surely  become  intelligent ; 
though  weak,  he  will  surely  become  strong." 


Marcus  Aurelius :  **  Are  you  unable  to  claim 
admiration  for  the  lively  qualities  of  your  mind  ? 
Granted ;  but  there  are  many  other  things  in 
regard  to  which  you  cannot  say  :  *  I  am  not  fitted 
for  it.'  Do  those  things,  then,  that  lie  altogether 
within  your  capacity  :  be  honest,  industrious,  a 
spurner  of  pleasures,  content  with  little ;  show 
yourself  free,  benevolent,  and  disinclined  to  luxury, 
frivolity,  and  grandeur.  See  you  not  how  many 
things  there  are  that  you  can  begin  doing  to-day, 
and  in  regard  to  which  you  cannot  plead  want  of 
aptitude  or  insufficient  strength  ?  " 


Epictetus  :  "  It  is  impossible  for  me  not  to 
commit  errors ;  but  it  is  quite  possible  for  me  to  be 
constantly  on  my  guard  against  committing  them." 


You    have    already    many    a    time    made    good 
resolutions,    which    you    have    not    kept :     that, 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  191 

however,  is  no  reason  for  not  making  new  ones. 
Every  good  resolution  keeps  you  in  the  right  path 
for  a  few  weeks,  a  few  days,  a  few  hours,  a  few 
moments  :  that  is  so  much  to  the  good,  and  it  may 
be  the  beginning  of  a  regular  habit. 


Epictetus  :    "  Habits  are  overcome  by  habits  of 
a  contrary  complexion." 


Keep  a  watch  over  yourself  so  as  not  to  fall  into 
bad  habits,  or  merely  absurd  little  mannerisms. 


Marcus  Aurelius  :  "  When  you  feel  shocked  by 
somebody  else's  shortcomings,  turn  your  eyes 
inward  and  reflect  on  the  similar  faults  you  yourself 
commit." 


Epictetus  :  **  Your  true  festivals  are  those  on 
which  you  have  overcome  a  temptation,  or  on 
which  you  have  driven  away,  or  at  least  diminished, 
the  mastery  of  pride,  recklessness,  malice,  slander, 
envy,  luxury,  or  any  of  the  other  vices  which  hold 
you  in  their  grip.  For  this  a  sacrificial  offering  to 
the  gods  is  more  justly  due  than  if  you  had  obtained 
the  consulship  or  the  command  of  an  army." 


Mencius  :  "  Here  is  now  a  man  who  daily  steals 
his  neighbour's  hens.  Somebody  says  to  him : 
*  This  is  not  the  conduct  of  an  honest  man.'  But 
he  replies  :  '  I  should  like  to  rid  myself  of  this  vice 
by  degrees  ;  until  next  year  I  will  only  take  one 
hen  per  month,  and  afterwards  I  will  make  an 
end  of  the  practice.'  If  you  know  that  your 
conduct  is  unrighteous,  then  stop  immediately. 
Why  wait  till  next  year  ?  " 


192  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Epictetus  :  "  When  you  say  that  you  will  turn 
over  a  new  leaf  to-morrow,  that  is  tantamount  to 
saying  that  to-day  you  want  to  be  impudent, 
cowardly,  passionate,  envious,  selfish,  or  faithless. 
Only  think  how  many  sins  you  are  allowing  yourself. 
'  But  to-morrow  I  shall  be  a  different  man.'  Why 
not  to-day  ?  " 


Confucius  :  "  From  the  Emperor  down  to  the 
mass  of  the  people,  one  duty  is  obligatory  for  all  : 
to  correct  and  improve  oneself." 


Laziness  is  unquestionably  a  disease.  You  must 
cure  yourself  of  it. 

Do  not  confuse  idleness  and  rest.  Rest  does  not 
consist  in  doing  nothing,  but  in  doing  something 
different — that  is  to  say,  in  exercising  other  faculties, 
while  allowing  those  that  are  tired  to  recuperate. 
Rest  is  essential,  whereas  idleness  is  the  root  of 
many  evils. 


Work    is    doubly    moral,    because    by    working, 
one  is  useful  to  oneself  and  to  others. 


Alexis  de  Tocqueville  :  "  There  never  comes  a 
time  for  rest  in  one's  life  :  constant  effort  both 
within  and  without  is  as  necessary,  and  even  more 
so,  when  one  gets  old,  as  it  is  in  youth.  A  man  in 
this  world  may  be  compared  to  a  traveller  who  is 
steadily  advancing  into  ever  colder  regions,  and 
who  is  therefore  obliged  to  move  more  rapidly  the 
farther  he  gets.  The  soul's  most  formidable 
enemy  is  the  cold.  And  in  order  to  overcome  it,  we 
must  maintain  the  activity  of  our  mind  not  only  by 
work,  but  also  by  contact  with  our  fellow-men  and 
the  affairs  of  the  world." 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  193 

Montaigne :     "  Old    age    carves    more    wrinkles 
on  our  mind  than  on  our  face." 


L.  Bourdeau  :  "  The  power  which  animates  the 
universe  sets  us  an  example.  ...  It  never  stops, 
because  it  is  never  tired  and  because  its  task  has 
no  end.  The  energy  which  we  possess,  although 
small  in  quantity,  being  an  individualised  particle 
of  the  energy  of  the  universe,  should  follow  the 
same  laws  :  activity  is  the  very  life  of  a  moral 
agent." 


Do  not  overtask  your  strength,  however,  either 
mentally  or  physically,  for  excess  of  any  kind  is 
always  followed  by  more  or  less  serious  conse- 
quences. 

Prudently  distinguish,  then,  between  the  effort 
which  tends  to  the  maintenance  or  enlargement  of 
life  and  the  excessive  or  over-prolonged  exertion 
which  has  a  weakening  effect.  We  must  not 
diminish  life  while  thinking  to  increase  it. 


Do  not  worry  excessively.  Epictetus  says : 
"  In  everything  we  must  do  all  that  lies  in  our 
power,  and  for  the  rest  we  must  be  resolute  and 
calm.  I  am  obliged  to  go  on  a  sea  voyage  :  what 
must  I  do  ?  I  must  carefully  choose  the  ship, 
the  pilot,  the  crew,  the  season,  the  day,  the  wind, 
and  that  is  all  that  depends  on  myself.  As  soon 
as  I  have  sailed  a  great  storm  springs  up  ;  that  is 
not  my  concern,  it  is  the  business  of  the  pilot." 


Moderate  ambition  (very  moderate)  is  not  an  evil. 
It  springs  from  a  lawful  desire  to  provide  food 
for  our  activity,  and  to  extend  the  scope  of  our 
influence  for  good. 

13 


194  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Are  you  sad  ?     Then  work.     Are  you  discour- 
aged ?     Then  work  for  others. 


If  you  are  inclined  to  lose  faith  in  humanity, 
think  of  the  good  men  of  all  times. 


Is  there  anything  nobler  and  more  consoling  than 
the  life  of  a  good  man  ? 


Live  in  constant  intercourse  with  good  men ; 
especially  Marcus  Aurelius,  Epictetus,  and  Con- 
fucius, among  the  ancients.  As  for  the  modern 
writers,  make  your  own  choice.  Read  a  page  every 
day,  and  meditate  on  it. 


Never  forget  your  dead  friends.  Remember  their 
virtues  and  try  to  imitate  their  noble  and  generous 
deeds. 


Do  not  weep  over  your  own  sorrows.  Do  not 
become  maudlin  by  thinking  of  the  moral  or 
physical  pain  you  have  undergone. 


Anything  that  causes  depression,  diminishes 
one's  stock  of  energy,  or  interferes  with  one's  work, 
is  bad.  Therefore  fight  against  depression,  try  to 
look  on  the  bright  side  of  things,  and  cultivate  a 
serene  and  cheerful  spirit. 


Set  apart  a  little  time  every  night  for  self- 
examination.  Devote  some  time  each  day  to 
quiet  meditation  and  to  the  inner  life. 


Be  honest  with  yourself  :  do  not  seek  to  palliate 
your  own  faults  ;  do  not  exaggerate  them  either, 
but  obtain  as  accurate  an  idea  as  possible  of  your 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  195 

moral  condition.  Think  of  the  qualities  which  are 
lacking  in  you  and  which  you  must  acquire,  of 
the  faults  which  hold  you  under  their  sway  and 
which  you  must  get  rid  of,  and  shape  your  efforts 
accordingly,  without  ever  losing  heart. 


Guyau  :  "  In  all  philosophical  reflection  there  is 
a  consolatory  element,  arising  not  so  much  from 
itself,  for  it  may  be  concerned  with  very  sad 
realities,  as  indirectly,  because  by  enlarging  our 
thoughts  it  also  enlarges  our  heart." 


Marcus  Aurelius  :  ''As  your  habitual  thoughts 
are,  so  will  your  mind  be,  for  our  soul  takes  its 
colouring  from  our  thoughts." 


Never  commit  a  base  deed,  never  tell  a  lie. 


Do  not  commit  base  deeds  to-day  under  the 
pretext  that  to-morrow  you  will  perform  a  brilliant, 
or  simply  an  honest,  action. 


Do  nothing  mean.  Respect  your  own  dignity. 
Dignity  must  not  be  taken  to  mean  pride,  still  less 
vanity. 


Ta-Ya  (Ode  i)  :  '*  When  you  are  in  your  own 
private  apartment,  do  nothing  of  which  you  would 
be  ashamed,  though  exposed  only  to  the  light  of 
heaven." 


Never  be  vulgar  in  your  thoughts,  gestures, 
words,  or  actions.  If  you  are  obliged  to  repeat 
the  words  of  a  drunkard  or  an  angry  man,  mimic 
neither  his  voice  nor  his  gestures.  You  should 
only  imitate  what  is  beautiful. 


196  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Be  firm,  but  not  stupidly  obstinate. 


Intelligence  is   divine,   but  intelligent  kindness 
is  even  better. 


Do  you  wish  to  acquire  true  loftiness  of  character? 
Then  be  good  to  others  ;  but  let  your  goodness  be 
of  an  intelligent,  active,  and  sympathetic  nature, 
a  blend  of  penetration,  patience,  inspiriting  in- 
fluence, geniality,  firmness,  and  discretion.  Your 
goodness  must  not  be  weakness  in  disguise,  nor 
spring  from  a  desire  to  "  live  a  quiet  life."  That 
sort  of  goodness  only  produces  indolence  and 
slackness  in  those  who  are  its  object,  and  causes 
you  to  forfeit  their  respect.  Lastly,  your  goodness 
to  a  friend  should  not  make  you  guilty  of  injustice 
towards  a  stranger. 


Marcus  Aurelius  :  "  Often  one  is  unjust  without 
doing  anything ;  it  is  not  only  actions  that  are 
unjust." 


To  refrain  from  doing  evil  is  only  the  elementary 
and  negative  part  of  our  duty  ;  to  do  good  is  the 
positive  or  active  part  of  it. 


Not  to  prevent  the  commission  of  an  evil  deed 
when  one  has  the  power  is  to  commit  it  oneself. 


Confucius  :   "He  who  sees  what  is  right  and  does 
not  do  it  is  guilty  of  cowardice." 


Marcus  Aurelius  :   "  Justice  is  the  fountain-head 
of  all  virtue." 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  197 

Seneca  :  "  Let  me  be  taught  what  a  holy  thing 
is  justice,  which  is  intent  only  on  the  rights  of 
others  and  looks  for  no  other  reward  than  what 
is  derived  from  its  own  works.  ...  Be  it  the 
ambition  of  every  man  to  say  to  himself  :  *  It  is 
my  duty  to  be  just  without  any  selfish  motive.' 
Nay,  that  is  not  enough  ;  let  him  say  :  *  I  will 
joyfully  sacrifice  myself  for  this  most  lovely  virtue  ; 
let  me  do  my  utmost  to  stifle  any  thought  of  private 
advantage  to  be  gained.'  Consider  not  what  re- 
muneration will  accompany  your  just  action.  .  .  . 
It  matters  not  at  all  whether  your  upright  conduct 
be  known  to  many  or  to  few.  He  who  wishes  to 
have  his  virtue  published  abroad  is  striving  after 
glory,  not  after  virtue." 


J.  Payot :  **  When  we  endeavour  to  lead  a 
nobler  and  more  intense  life,  we  are  conscious  of 
collaborating  not  only  with  the  wisest  and  best 
among  men,  but  with  the  universe  itself." 


Let  us  frequently  unite  ourselves  in  spirit  with 
the  Whole.  Thus  shall  we  come  to  a  better  under- 
standing of  the  way  in  which  we  should  go,  of  the 
goal  towards  which  we  should  strive;  a  great 
peace  will  enter  into  our  soul,  and  at  the  same  time 
we  shall  feel  a  more  eager  desire  to  share  in  the 
mighty  effort  of  the  universe. 


L.  Bourdeau :  "  Our  feeling  of  adoration  for 
the  divine  should  manifest  itself  in  impulses  of 
pure  love  towards  the  source  of  all  life,  in  a  pro- 
found admiration  for  all  the  beauty  and  intelligence 
that  irradiate  the  universe,  and  for  the  wisdom 
apparent  in  its  laws.  By  conforming  our  life 
thereto,  we  obtain  our  share  in  the  divine  life, 


198  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

collaborate  in  its  work,  and,  as  far  as  our  nature 
allows,  participate  in  its  infinite  grandeur." 


Love  beauty  under  all  its  forms.  Never  miss 
an  opportunity  of  seeing  a  fine  painting,  a  beautiful 
statue,  a  lovely  landscape,  a  gorgeous  sunset, 
a  pretty  flower,  of  hearing  a  piece  of  beautiful 
music,  and  still  less,  an  opportunity  of  doing  a 
noble  action. 


Never  be  weary  of  admiring  the  beauties  of 
Nature,  for  she  never  wearies  of  being  beautiful. 

One  need  only  get  away  from  great  cities  and 
keep  one's  eyes  open  in  order  to  see  how  beautiful 
Nature  is  at  all  times. 

A  storm  is  raging,  and  heavy  black  clouds  are 
driven  headlong  across  the  sky.  The  firmament 
is  rent  asunder  by  dazzling  flashes  of  lightning, 
and  rolling  peals  of  thunder  are  reverberated  by 
the  mountains.  In  wild  fury,  the  ocean  billows  hurl 
themselves  against  the  rocky  cliff,  only  to  fall  back 
with  a  sullen  roar,  spent  by  the  effort  and  covered 
with  foam.  In  the  forest  you  hear  the  howling  and 
wailing  and  whistling  of  the  wind,  and  the  boughs 
of  immemorial  giants  bend  beneath  the  blast. 
Every  twig  glitters  with  pearly  drops.  Then 
appears  the  rainbow,  and  all  is  calm  once  more. 
The  sky  clears,  and  resumes  its  tranquil  hues. 
The  sea  lazily  spreads  out  over  the  shore,  and  as 
lazily  retires  —  a  rhythmic  process  eternally  re- 
peated, with  the  murmur  of  the  shingle  for  its 
eternal  accompaniment. 

Let  us  now  climb  this  mountain  side  or  walk  up 
yonder  hill.  Noble  views,  enchanting  prospects, 
open  out  before  our  eyes  at  every  step. 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  199 

All  seasons  of  the  year  are  beautiful.  In  spring, 
there  are  the  tender  greens  of  meadow  and  forest, 
the  earliest  blossoms  hailed  with  joy,  the  song  of 
birds. 

In  summer,  flowers  with  all  their  scents  and 
colours,  the  smell  of  pines,  soft  breezes,  bright- 
hued  butterflies  with  wings  of  silk  and  velvet,  and 
starry  nights. 

In  autumn,  the  glory  of  the  foliage,  adorning 
itself  so  as  to  be  beautiful  in  death ;  the  forest 
undergrowth  transfigured  by  the  radiance  of  the 
setting  sun — a  glimpse  of  fairyland  ! 

In  winter,  the  exquisite  tracery  of  frost-covered 
branches,  the  soft  white  carpet  of  snow  on  the 
ground,  the  grey  mist  blurring  the  outlines  of 
the  landscape. 

In  every  season,  either  a  blue  sky  overhead  or  a 
canopy  of  cloud,  white,  grey,  or  black,  horizontal 
bands,  fleecy  mountain-masses,  or  ravelled  threads 
pierced  by  rays  of  golden  light. 

Always,  too,  there  are  sunrises  and  sunsets, 
marvellous  displays  of  glowing,  melting  colour, 
hardly  of  this  earth. 


Thus  everywhere  in  Nature  we  find  aesthetic 
feeling  continually  manifesting  itself  in  designed 
effects  or  play  of  fancy.  Look  at  the  peacock's 
feather.  The  material  brought  by  the  blood  to 
the  barbules  composing  each  feather  is  the  same 
for  all,  yet  each  part  selects  a  particular  pigment 
and  arranges  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  harmonise  with 
the  general  scheme.  The  distribution  of  these 
pigments  varies  in  each  barbule,  and  is  so  contrived 
that  the  whole  forms  an  object  remarkable  both 
for  regularity  of  design  and  for  beauty  of  colouring  : 
the  eye  of  a  peacock's  feather. 


200  ^A^  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Bright  colours  and  harmonious  patterns  are  also 
found  on  the  bodies  of  caterpillars,  wasps,  and 
beetles,  on  numerous  insects,  birds,  and  fishes, 
on  the  mother-of-pearl  in  sea-shells,  and  on  the 
delicate  wings  of  the  butterfly. 

Nature,  that  incomparable  artist,  is  ever  at  work 
creating  beautiful  things  in  profusion,  just  for  the 
pleasure  of  it.     Open  your  eyes  and  admire. 


Do  not  feel  ashamed  to  do  what  is  right.     Do  not 
be  deterred  by  the  scofiing  of  so-called  *'  friends." 


You  want  to  do  good,  you  want  to  help  others  ? 
Then  put  your  whole  mind,  and  especially  your 
whole  heart,  into  your  acts  and  into  your  words  ; 
otherwise  there  will  be  no  result. 


J.  J.  Rousseau :  "  You  may  open  your  purse 
freely  enough,  but  if  you  do  not  open  your  heart 
as  well,  the  hearts  of  others  will  always  be  closed 
to  you.  It  is  your  time,  your  care,  your  affection, 
it  is  yourself,  which  you  must  give.  For  whatever 
you  may  do,  there  is  always  a  feeling  that  your 
money  is  not  you." 


Tzu  Ssii :  "  The  man  of  perfect  sincerity  does 
not  limit  himself  to  his  own  improvement,  and 
stop  there:  he  uses  his  virtue  to  improve  others 
as  well.  To  perfect  oneself  is  goodness ;  to  perfect 
others  shows  knowledge  and  wisdom." 


Our  first  altruistic  duty  is  to  assist  others  to 
fulfil  their  destiny — that  is,  to  attain  their  full 
development. 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  201 

J.  Simon  :  "It  is  our  duty,  when  we  believe 
that  some  portion  of  the  truth  is  within  us,  to 
endeavour  to  spread  it,  to  devote  ourselves  to 
its  service,  and  to  make  no  account  of  our  personal 
interests,  ambition,  or  vanity;  to  persevere  un- 
falteringly and  without  ever  turning  back,  to  do 
honour  and  homage  to  our  doctrine  by  our  own 
conduct,  to  identify  ourselves  with  the  cause  that 
we  have  embraced,  and  to  be  always  ready  to 
uphold  and  defend  it,  and  to  sacrifice  ourselves 
for  it." 


In  what,  above  all,  should  your  work  of  pro- 
selytism  consist  ?  In  inspiring  others  with  an 
enthusiasm  for  truth  and  justice  and  work,  and 
with  a  passion  for  intelligent  kindness. 


In  your  philanthropic  ardour  do  not  imagine 
that  you  can  make  others  perfect  if  your  own  faults 
are  so  great  that  they  stare  them  in  the  face. 
Begin  by  attending  to  your  own  moral  advance- 
ment, for  a  living  example  is  more  persuasive 
and  convincing  than  the  most  eloquent  sermons. 

How  can  you  preach  gentleness  if  you  yourself 
are  violent  ?  Therefore,  away  with  anger  and 
impatience. 

If,  in  a  discussion,  something  is  said  that  annoys 
you,  do  not  reply,  no  matter  how  much  you  may 
feel  inclined  to  do  so.  If  you  receive  a  letter  which 
irritates  you,  do  not  answer  it  immediately,  if  at 
all :  beware  of  anger.  Anger  is  closely  related  to 
madness. 


202  ^A^   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Boulaq  Papyrus  :    "No  good  is  to  be  gained  by 
speaking  evil." 


Do  you  wish  to  do  something  foolish  ?     Then 
listen  to  the  promptings  of  your  evil  temper. 


Epictetus  :  *'  If  you  insult  a  stone,  what  will  it 
advantage  you  ?  It  will  not  listen  to  you  at  all. 
Imitate  the  stone,  and  do  not  listen  to  any  insult 
that  may  be  addressed  to  you." 


Boulaq  Papyrus  :    "  Speak  gently  to  one  who  is 
angry  ;  it  is  the  best  way  to  soothe  his  feelings." 


M.  Guyau  :  "He  who  gives  way  to  violence  is 
stifling  the  sympathetic  and  intellectual  element  in 
his  nature — that  is  to  say,  the  part  of  him  which, 
in  an  evolutionary  sense,  is  the  highest  and  most 
complex.  In  treating  others  with  brutality,  he 
becomes  more  or  less  brutalised  himself.  Thus 
violence,  which  at  first  sight  is  a  triumphant 
outburst  of  inward  power,  evinces  itself  in  the 
end  as  a  narrowing  influence." 


Be  virtuous  without  ostentation.  Do  not  be 
always  preaching,  but  never  be  weary  of  setting  a 
good  example.  Be  sparing  of  words,  but  rely  on 
the  example  of  a  lifetime. 


Mencius  :  "I  have  never  heard  that  a  man  of 
tortuous  conduct  has  succeeded  in  making  others 
upright  and  sincere." 

Confucius  :  "  Let  your  words  correspond  with 
your  acts,  and  your  acts  with  your  words." 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  203 

Think  of  others  always  and  of  yourself  as  little 
as  possible. 


Do    you    fear    that    your    efforts    are    useless  ? 
Then  redouble  them. 


You  say  you  have  nothing  to  give  this  poor 
man  ?  You  are  wrong.  You  can  give  him  a  word 
of  encouragement. — You  cannot  give  even  that  ? 
Then  give  him  a  brotherly  smile. 


Love  all  men,  for  every  man  is  what  you  are- 
a  part  of  the  Whole. 


Extend  the  horizon  of  your  sympathy  as  far  as 
you  can.  Love  everything  :  plants,  flowers,  lakes, 
seas,  animals,  clouds,  stars,  mountains,  valleys, 
sunsets,  all  men,  especially  those  who  suffer. 


M.  Guyau  :  "In  the  society  of  the  future,  the 
sentiment  which  will  require  most  development  is 
that  of  universal  sympathy." 


Spare  a  thought  every  day  to  those  who  are 
suffering. 


Boulaq  Papyrus  :  "  Eat  no  bread,  while  another 
is  standing  by,  without  stretching  out  your  hand 
to  get  bread  for  him  too." 


Do  not  only  dream  of  noble  deeds,  but  do  them. 


Think  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  thinking,  but 
with  a  view  to  doing.  Let  thought  and  action 
go  hand  in  hand. 


204  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Meditation  should  only  be  the  prelude  to  action. 


The  chief  value  of  thoughts  lies  in  the  acts  which 
they  engender. 


Rondelet :  "  The  solitude  of  the  soul  is  to  be 
feared  as  a  perpetual  temptation  to  selfishness 
and  pride." 


Devotion   to  others  is  admirable  ;   devotion   to 
an  idea  is  sublime. 


You  thin^  that  children's  intelligence  is  too 
limited  to  understand  the  nobility  of  sacrifice. 
You  are  mistaken.  Children  understand  almost 
instinctively  the  most  elevated  sentiments,  and 
the  most  generous  ideas. 


Treat    your    friends    with    kindness,    and   your 
enemies  with  indulgence. 


Be  very  lenient  to  those  who  have  done  wrong ; 
you  do  not  know  how  many  times  they  have  resisted 
temptation,  you  do  not  know  how  long  they 
struggled  before  they  fell.  Perhaps,  in  spite  of 
their  fall,  they  may  be  better  than  you,  who  have 
never  been  tempted. 


Be  hard  on  yourself,  but  not  on  others  ;  your 
example  may,  perhaps,  make  them  more  severe 
towards  themselves. 


Never  make  use  of  coarse  expressions. 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  205 

Never  use  any  contemptuous  words  ;  what  right 
have  you  to  despise  one  of  your  brothers  ?  Never 
humiliate  any  one  by  word,  look,  or  gesture. 


Boulaq  Papyrus  :    "  Beware  of  sinning  in  thy 
speech  ;    see  that  it  contain  no  sting." 


Do  not  say,  "  So  and-so  is  a  thief."  But,  if  it 
s  absolutely  necessary,  say,  "  So-and-so  has  com- 
mitted a  theft."     You  see  the  difference  ? 


Marcus  Aurelius  :  "  Acquire  the  habit  of  lending 
an  attentive  ear  to  the  words  of  others,  and  enter 
as  far  as  possible  into  the  thought  of  the  speaker." 


A.  Clermont :  "If  anyone  comes  and  tells  you 
his  troubles  and  griefs,  lend  him  a  friendly  ear, 
with  earnest  attention,  and  without  thinking  of 
yourself ;  without  encroaching  too  far  on  his 
time  and  your  own,  offer  him  kindly  the  best 
advice  that  occurs  to  you  after  due  reflection,  but 
be  very  careful  not  to  reciprocate  or  to  outdo  him 
by  the  relation  of  your  own  sorrows,  which,  by 
the  way,  will  always  appear  worse  in  your  eyes  than 
those  you  have  been  listening  to." 


Seneca :  "I  would  have  people  refrain  from 
lamenting  over  sufferings  which  have  long  receded 
into  the  past ;  let  us  not  hear  them  exclaiming  : 
*  Never  was  a  man  more  wretched  than  I  !  What 
torture,  what  agony,  have  I  not  undergone !  ' 
All  that,  even  if  it  be  true,  is  a  thing  of  the 
past.  What  is  the  good  of  reopening  old  wounds 
and  perpetuating  former  unhappiness  ?  Is  it  not 
strange,  this  mania  men  have  for  exaggerating  their 
misfortunes  and  wilfully  deceiving  themselves  ?  .  .  . 


206  AN   ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Away,  then,  with  this  harping  on  the  troubles  of 
the  past,  away  with  all  dread  of  what  is  to  come  ; 
the  past  is  nothing  to  me  now,  the  future  cannot 
affect  me  yet." 


Which  is  the  better  of  any  two  men  ?  It  is 
he  who  understands  best  and  feels  most  strongly 
that  he  is  a  part  of  the  Whole,  and  a  particle  of 
the  Universal  Energy. 


Ts^ng  Tzii :  "  What  a  man  dislikes  in  his 
superiors,  let  him  not  display  in  the  treatment  of 
his  inferiors  ;  what  he  dislikes  in  inferiors,  let  him 
not  display  in  the  service  of  his  superiors.  What 
he  disapproves  in  those  who  are  before  him,  let 
him  not  practise  on  those  who  are  behind  him  ; 
what  he  disapproves  in  those  who  are  behind  him, 
let  him  not  practise  on  those  who  are  before  him. 
What  he  hates  to  receive  on  the  right  hand,  let 
him  not  bestow  on  the  left ;  what  he  hates  to 
receive  on  the  left,  let  him  not  bestow  on  the  right. 
This  is  what  is  called  the  reason  and  rule  of  all 
conduct." 


Fulfil  all  your  duties  towards  your  country. 


If  you  possess  the  right  of  voting,  illness  is  the 
only  cause  that  should  prevent  you  from  recording 
your  vote.  Not  to  give  one's  vote  to  an  honourable 
man  is  a  crime. 


If  it  is  necessary,  take  your  part  unhesitatingly 
in  the  administration  of  your  town  or  of  your 
country. 


t 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  207 

Help  in  some  useful  work.  Support  it  with 
your  money,  if  you  can  do  nothing  else. 

Dr  Forel :  "  Work  in  itself  is  not  enough  ; 
besides  the  work  by  which  he  earns  his  living,  every 
man  should  do  a  certain  amount  of  social  work. 
Without  social  work,  whether  it  be  done  in  public 
or  kept  modestly  out  of  sight,  there  is  no  true 
morality." 


You  ask  what  politeness  is.     It  is  kindness  in 
small  things. 


Reply  as  soon  as  possible  to  the  letters  you  re- 
ceive. In  ordinary  conversation  you  reply  at  once  ; 
why  not  do  the  same  in  written  conversation  ? 


When  engaged  in  a  discussion,  do  not  be  obstinate 
and  overbearing.  Simply  state  your  arguments, 
and  let  that  suffice.  Do  not  drive  your  opponent 
into  the  last  ditch,  or  force  him  to  acknowledge  his 
defeat.  If  you  refrain  from  humiliating  him,  per- 
haps your  words  may  bear  fruit  in  his  mind  later  on. 


If  you  play  a  game,  do  not  crush  your  opponent 
by  your  superior  play,  and  do  not  ostentatiously 
show  off  your  skill.  Be  generous.  In  doubtful 
cases,  always  give  your  adversary  the  benefit  of 
the  doubt.  If  you  lose,  do  not  look  sulky,  and  never 
say  that  the  other  man  "  won  through  a  fluke," 
but  acknowledge  frankly  that  he  played  better 
than  you. 


Acquire  the  habit  of  seeing  the  qualities  rather 
than  the  defects  of  those  about  you. 


2o8  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

When  I  tell  you  that  you  should  be  kind,  I 
do  not  mean  that  you  must  be  so  only  on  great 
occasions — that  is  to  say,  rarely.  On  the  contrary, 
you  must  be  constantly  kind.  Kindness  may  be 
shown  in  a  thousand  ways  and  in  the  smallest 
things  ;  only,  one  must  think  of  them.  For  instance : 
when  you  come  home  late  at  night,  make  as  little 
noise  as  possible  ;  your  neighbours  may  be  asleep, 
and  you  have  no  right  to  waken  them  by  slamming 
the  doors,  stepping  heavily,  and  throwing  your 
boots  noisily  from  one  end  of  the  room  to  the  other. 
Above  all,  do  not  begin  or  continue  to  play  the 
piano  or  sing  when  you  think  that  your  neighbours 
are  in  bed.  You  have  no  right  to  prevent  others 
from  sleeping  because  you  are  not  sleepy  yourself. 
After  a  certain  hour,  let  no  one  hear  you  make  a 
sound. 


You  should  not  depart  this  world  without 
leaving  it  a  little  better  than  you  found  it.  You 
may  reply  that  your  position  is  too  humble  for  you 
to  have  any  influence.  But  you  can  surely  afford 
those  who  live  with  you  an  example  of  calmness 
and  gentleness,  justice  and  devotion,  and  ceaseless 
striving  after  the  right.  Does  that  count  for 
nothing  ? 


If  you  are  in  doubt  whether  to  do  a  thing  or 
not,  just  ask  yourself  if  you  would  be  glad  to-morrow 
to  have  done  it. 


Suppose  you  are  ill.  You  know  what  is  required 
of  you  :  patience  and  courage,  gratefulness  towards 
those  who  are  nursing  you,  strict  compliance  with 
the  doctor's  orders,  and  an  example  of  gentleness 
and  kindliness  to   everyone  with  whom  you  are 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  209 

brought  into  contact.  When  the  pain  is  less 
severe,  avail  yourself  of  the  opportunity  for  quiet 
inward  meditation. 


Confucius  :  ''  Moral  virtue  consists  in  being  able, 
anywhere  and  everywhere,  to  exercise  five  particu- 
lar qualities:  self-respect,  magnanimity,  sincerity, 
earnestness,  and  benevolence." 


Marcus  Aurelius  :  "  Benevolence  is  invincible, 
provided  it  be  sincere  ;  for  what  can  the  wickedest 
of  men  do  to  you,  if  you  persist  in  treating  him 
with  gentleness  ?  Suppose  you  exhort  him  quietly 
when  the  opportunity  offers,  and  speak  to  him 
without  anger,  when  he  is  trying  to  do  you  some 
harm,  somewhat  in  this  strain :  '  No,  my  good  sir, 
you  mistake  the  object  of  Hfe.  It  is  not  I  who 
will  suffer  harm,  it  is  you  who  are  harming  yourself  !' 
Contrive  to  make  him  see,bya  general  presentment  of 
the  case,  that  this  is  Nature's  rule,  and  that  neither 
bees  nor  any  of  the  animals  that  are  naturally 
gregarious  adopt  his  line  of  action.  Do  not  fall 
into  a  scoffing  or  insulting  tone,  but  show  that  you 
are  actuated  by  genuine  goodwill  and  kindness  that 
cannot  be  soured  by  resentment ;  do  not  behave 
like  a  prig,  nor  bid  for  the  applause  of  the  company, 
but  keep  your  mind  fixed  on  him  alone,  even  if 
others  should  happen  to  be  by." 


M.  Guyau  :  "  The  man  of  action  has  no  time 
to  waste  on  self-pity.  The  widening  of  human 
sympathy  is  the  antidote  to  all  the  sufferings  of 
the  modern  brain." 


M.  Guyau :  "  The  true  remedy  for  all  sufferings 
is  to  increase  the  activity  of  the  mind.  .  .  .  Action 

14 


210  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

is  the  grand  palliative  for  suffering.  This  explains 
the  power  of  charity  to  assuage  personal  grief, 
in  which  there  is  always  a  slight  tinge  of  selfishness. 
There  is  no  better  way  of  comforting  oneself  than 
to  bring  comfort  to  others.'* 


Never  tell  a  lie  even  in  jest,  especially  to  a  child. 
A  lie,  like  every  other  mistake,  intentional  or 
otherwise,  can  never  be  anything  but  an  evil,  and 
productive  of  evil. 


Remember  that  physical,  mental,  and  moral 
qualities,  as  well  as  defects,  are  handed  down  by 
parents  to  their  children.  Their  ways  of  feeling 
and  thinking  are  inherited  as  well  as  their  pre- 
disposition to  such  and  such  a  disease.  If  a 
child  is  untruthful,  lazy,  dishonest,  deceitful,  and 
passionate,  if  he  has  a  tendency  to  certain  illnesses, 
it  is  because  he  resembles  either  his  parents  or  his 
grandparents,  or,  less  frequently,  ancestors  still 
more  remote.  Young  man,  it  behoves  you  then  to 
choose  your  wife  with  the  greatest  care.  My  dear 
girl,  be  also  extremely  careful  in  your  choice  of  a 
husband. 


A.  Martin  :  '*  As  regards  the  family,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  work  begun  by  heredity  is  continued  by 
the  force  of  example,  for  the  qualities  and  defects 
of  parents  are  transmitted  to  their  children  in  the 
first  place  by  consanguinity,  and  afterwards  by 
the  example  that  they  set  them.  Hence  one  is 
sometimes  shocked  at  the  thought  of  the  unfavour- 
able conditions  under  which  education  is  too  often 
carried  on  in  the  family  circle.  How  are  parents, 
we  wonder,  to  contend  with  the  vices  that  they 
themselves   have   begotten   in   their   offspring,    in 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  211 

which  they  continue  to  indulge  before  their  children's 
eyes,  and  of  which,  in  many  cases,  they  are  not 
even  conscious  ?  How  can  generous,  high-minded 
souls  find  room  to  develop  in  a  family  where  mean 
and  narrow  ideas  prevail,  where  base  and  covetous 
instincts  flourish  ?  How  are  the  children  to  be 
simple,  modest,  and  industrious,  if  they  grow  up 
in  an  atmosphere  of  luxury,  ostentation,  and  self- 
indulgence  ?  ...  It  is  the  influence  of  habit, 
combined  with  that  of  example,  that  constitutes, 
in  our  opinion,  the  most  potent  instrument  of 
moral  training." 


Parents,  be  careful  with  whom  your  children 
associate.  If  a  child  has  a  friend  whom  he  admires 
and  is  intimate  with,  he  always  has  a  tendency  to 
imitate  him  in  everything,  and  for  a  time  the 
influence  of  such  a  friend  is  strong  enough  to 
eclipse  that  of  parents  and  teachers.  Be  watchful, 
therefore. 


Nicole  :  "  What  we  read  falls  upon  the  soil  of 
our  minds  like  seed,  and  germinates  from  time  to 
time  in  thoughts  and  desires."  And  likewise  what 
we  see  and  hear.  Once  more,  then,  O  parents,  keep 
watch. 


Instead  of  teaching  your  children  ethics  in  the 
abstract,  instil  into  them  good  habits  :  the  habit 
of  work  thoroughly  done,  the  habit  of  cleanliness, 
the  love  of  truth,  self-respect,  and  respect  for 
others,  gratitude,  courage,  perseverance,  co-opera- 
tion, and  discipline.  Teach  them,  by  stories 
drawn  from  actual  experience,  to  respect  the  weak, 
to  love  their  native  place,  their  mother-country, 
and  the  great  world  in  which  they  have  their  being. 


212  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

Use  poetry  and  science  as  a  means  of  exciting  their 
love  and  admiration  for  Nature  to  the  highest  point. 
Kindle  in  them  a  passionate  love  for  the  Whole. 
Foster  their  virtuous  impulses,  for  conduct  is 
largely  determined  by  feeling  and  impulse. 

Do  not  say  to  a  child :  "  Work  and  you  will  be 
rewarded  ;  be  good  and  you  shall  have  a  sugar- 
plum." You  must  tell  him  early  in  life  :  "  Work 
and  be  good  because  it  is  right,  because  your  self- 
respect  requires  it,  because  it  accords  with  the  plan 
of  the  Whole/'  Do  not  fear  to  make  the  child 
understand  that  he  is  a  tiny  part  of  the  Whole,  and 
must  work  in  the  same  direction  as  the  Universe. 


Guizot :  "  If  you  are  unable  to  stimulate  your 
child's  will  except  by  promise  of  a  pleasure,  pleasure 
will  become  his  guiding  principle  and  the  whole 
object  of  his  efforts  ;  doing  his  duty  will  be  nothing 
more  to  him  than  a  means  of  attaining  his  object, 
a  secondary  motive  which  his  mind  will  not  invest 
with  the  moral  elevation  and  importance  that  are 
proper  to  it." 


If  you  work  constantly  to  attain  perfection,  if 
you  sacrifice  yourself  continually  for  others,  if  you 
spend  your  whole  life  in  doing  good  in  every 
possible  way  to  all  around  you,  you  will,  neverthe- 
less, have  done  nothing  moral,  and  you  will  not 
be  worthy  of  any  respect,  if  it  has  been  done  in 
the  hope  of  receiving  a  reward  in  this  world  or  the 
next.  You  will  simply  have  proved  yourself  a 
practical  man,  who,  according  to  the  popular 
saying,  "  uses  a  sprat  to  catch  a  salmon."  Call 
yourself  a  dealer  in  good  works,  if  you  will,  but 
do  not  imagine  that  you  are  a  man  of  virtue.     Do 


DUTIES  AND   PRECEPTS  213 

your  duty  because  it  is  your  duty — there  is  no  other 
worthy  motive.  Do  a  thing  because  it  is  moral, 
and  because  it  is  desirable  that  the  thing  should 
be  done,  but  never  think  of  the  reward,  nor  desire 
it.  What  is  right  must  be  done  without  thought 
of  self. 


Instead  of  setting  up  the  very  low  and  vulgar 
ideal  of  rewards  for  goodness,  try  to  make  people 
realise  the  intrinsic  nobility  there  is  in  doing  a 
thing  merely  because  it  is  morally  beautiful, 
and  they  will  do  it,  for  the  heart  of  man  is  really 
nobler  than  people  generally  suppose.  Develop 
in  men  the  feeling  of  personal  dignity  and  of  self- 
respect,  and  they  will  easily  do  without  the  hope 
of  a  reward,  or  the  fear  of  punishment ;  they  will 
be  above  both. 


L.  Bourdeau  :  **  When  virtue  is  regulated  by 
profit,  it  degenerates  into  a  process  of  clever 
calculation,  and  well-doing  becomes  nothing  more 
nor  less  than  a  profitable  investment.  True  morality 
is  of  a  disinterested  nature  and  aims  only  at  the 
inward  satisfaction  of  having  observed  the  '  law.'  " 


Seneca  :    **  The  reward  of  a  virtuous  deed  is  the 
doing  of  it." 


Kant :    "  Man  reaches  his  highest  state  of  per- 
fection when  he  does  his  duty  from  a  sense  of  duty." 

Guyau  :    "  The  purest  form  of  moral  sentiment 
consists  in  doing  what  is  right  for  its  own  sake." 

The  true  reward  of  a  good  deed  is  that  it  makes 
one  a  better  man. 


214  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

Marcus  Aurelius  :  **  One  man,  when  he  has  done 
you  a  kindness,  hastens  at  once  to  enter  it  against 
your  name  in  his  account.  Another  may  not  be 
in  quite  such  a  hurry,  but  nevertheless  he  retains 
a  hvely  recollection  of  what  he  has  done,  and  looks 
upon  you  in  the  light  of  a  debtor.  A  third  sort 
dismisses  the  matter  altogether  from  his  mind. 
He  is  like  a  vine  which  bears  its  grapes  and  is 
satisfied  with  being  fruitful  after  its  kind,  asking 
for  nothing  in  return.  He  does  not  proclaim  his 
deed  from  the  house-tops,  any  more  than  a  horse 
that  has  won  a  race,  or  a  hound  that  has  run  its 
quarry  to  earth,  or  a  bee  that  has  made  some  honey. 
He  simply  passes  on  to  another  generous  action, 
just  as  the  vine  gets  ready  to  bear  a  fresh  lot  of 
grapes  in  the  following  season." 


Marcus  Aurelius :  "  When  you  have  done  a 
good  deed,  and  another  has  benefited  by  it,  why 
try  for  yet  a  third  thing,  and  be  anxious  that  your 
goodness  should  appear  to  the  eyes  of  the  world  or 
excite  a  sentiment  of  gratitude  ?  " 


When  you  educate  a  child,  what  is  the  object 
that  you  keep  in  view  ?  You  try  to  make  a  good 
man  of  him  by  the  harmonious  development  of 
his  faculties  and  all  the  active  sides  of  his  character. 
That  is  exactly  what  you  should  constantly  strive 
to  achieve  for  yourself,  no  matter  what  your  age 
is,  for  in  this  respect  every  one  is  still  a  child. 


You  will  find  yourself  from  time  to  time  inspired 
with  a  strong  desire  to  become  a  virtuous  man.  Do 
not  check  that  rising  of  the  moral  sap,  but  begin 
at  once. 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  215 

Confucius  :  "  The  higher  type  of  man  is  cathoHc 
in  his  sympathy  and  free  from  party  bias  ;  the 
lower  type  of  man  is  biassed  and  unsympathetic." 

Plato  :  "  You  must  not  injure  any  man,  not 
even  the  wicked." 


Do  not  be  sparing  of  words  of  encouragement. 
Upright  men  require  them  in  order  to  persevere, 
and  the  others  need  them  still  more  in  order  to 
change  their  ways. 


Do  not  boast  of  the  good  that  you  do,  as  if  it 
were  an  extraordinary  thing. 


Epictetus  :  "  You  pity  the  blind  and  the  lame. 
Why  have  you  no  pity  for  the  wicked  ?  They 
are  wicked  in  spite  of  themselves,  just  as  the  others 
are  blind  and  lame." 


Marcus  Aurelius  :    "  The  best  revenge  one  can 
take  is  not  to  become  like  the  wicked." 


Every  morning  when  you  wake  up,  give  a  thought 
to  those  who  are  seeking  for  truth  and  wish  to 
do  what  is  right.  Associate  yourself  with  them  in 
spirit  by  your  love  of  righteousness  and  truth,  and 
by  your  desire  to  do  better  day  by  day. 


Have  compassion  on  animals.  Never  hurt  them 
voluntarily.  Kill  them  only  when  it  is  absolutely 
necessary,  and  always  as  humanely  as  possible. 
Animals  are  also  particles  of  the  Whole.  Never 
use  traps  that  cause  long  suffering  to  the  victims. 
Never  "  go  out  shooting,"  for  you  often  wound  poor 
beasts  that  crawl  away  into  some  corner  and  die, 


2i6  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

after  days  and  days  of  agony.  There  are  plenty 
of  open-air  sports  and  exercises  which  may  very 
well  take  the  place  of  hunting  and  shooting.  Then, 
at  any  rate,  you  will  not  incur  the  disgrace  of 
obtaining  your  amusement  at  the  cost  of  suffering. 
Your  pleasures  ought  never  to  be  productive  of 
pain.  Your  delights  must  never  involve  the  misery 
of  others,  be  they  men  or  beasts.  The  infliction 
of  suffering  and  death  for  one's  own  amusement  is 
brutal  and  degrading  to  the  last  degree. 

Never  inflict  useless  pain.  Destroy  as  little  as 
possible.  Is  not  that  the  best  way  of  showing  your 
respect  for  the  Whole  ? 


Regi  Michaud :  "  That  the  love  of  life — a 
wonderful  force  whose  triumph  is  assured — should 
be  instilled  into  us  is  all  to  the  good.  Nearly  all 
of  us  are  afraid  of  death,  but  few  indeed  are  the  true 
lovers  of  hfe.  To  love  life  is  not  to  hug  it  like  a 
miser — just  the  contrary.  None  are  more  ready, 
more  happy  to  die  than  those  indispensable  ones, 
bright  and  helpful  souls  who  adore  life  for  its 
own  sake  and  for  the  noble  uses  to  which  they  can 
turn  it.  He  loves  life  who  will  sacrifice  his  own 
to  save  his  child,  in  whom  he  lives  again  ;  he  loves 
life  who  will  yield  it  up  for  the  glory  of  the  race  in 
which  his  life  is  continued.  Love  of  life  is  shown 
in  resisting,  by  one's  powers  of  reason  and  energy 
of  character,  the  deceitful  pleasures  that  seek  to 
undermine  it ;  in  confronting  sickness  and  danger- 
ous passions  and  evil  enticements  with  a  will  that 
is  stronger  than  they  ;  in  refusing  to  yield  to  the 
foolish  and  fatal  preference  for  sensation  as  opposed 
to  duration  ;  in  priding  oneself  on  the  preserva- 
tion of  one's  being  as  a  whole,  and  in  abstaining 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  217 

from  transient  delights,  unlawful  thoughts,  and 
hysterical  excesses  which  last  but  an  instant  and 
soon  shatter  one's  self-respect ;  in  looking  stead- 
fastly to  the  future,  on  which  one  is  conscious  of 
having  a  rightful  lien  ;  in  making  no  cowardly 
concessions  to  the  enemy." 


L.  Bourdeau  :  "  Suppose  the  majority  of  men 
were  honest,  just,  gentle,  peaceful,  forbearing, 
and  ready  to  help,  in  the  same  degree  as  a  few 
choice  spirits  among  us,  who  show  what  human 
nature  is  capable  of  at  its  best,  the  happiness  of 
the  human  race  would  not  leave  much  to  be  desired. 
And  in  order  to  realise  this  ideal  state  of  society, 
what  is  it  necessary  for  us  to  change  except  our- 
selves ?  " 


J.  Payot :  *'  Ah  !  if  only  half  a  dozen  students 
went  back  to  their  native  villages  or  towns  every 
year  as  doctors  or  lawyers  or  professors,  fully 
resolved  to  treat  every  man,  however  modest  his 
station  in  life,  with  the  greatest  respect ;  resolved 
never  to  allow  an  act  of  injustice  to  pass  without 
making  an  energetic  and  undaunted  protest ;  re- 
solved to  introduce  more  true  kindliness,  equity, 
and  tolerance  into  social  intercourse ;  then,  in 
twenty  years,  a  new  aristocracy,  thoroughly  re- 
spected and  all-powerful  for  the  general  good, 
would  have  emerged,  to  the  great  and  lasting 
happiness  of  the  country,  and  of  every  part  of  the 
country." 


L.  Bourgeois:  ''Be  useful.  As  you  know, 
nothing  is  ever  lost,  and  the  vibration  of  the 
tiniest  atom,  being  imparted  to  its  neighbour, 
continues   ad   infinitum.     In   the   same    way,    the 


2i8  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

smallest  act  of  goodness  and  justice  adds  something 
to  the  general  advancement  of  humanity.  Let 
your  life  be  an  effort,  merged  in  the  united  effort 
of  mankind  at  large.  However  insignificant  your 
strength  may  be,  however  feeble  the  impetus  you 
have  given,  you  need  have  no  fear.  Your  effort 
is  not  lost." 


L.  Bourdeau  :  "  The  human  being  who  wishes 
to  enjoy  a  complete  life  must  first  develop  his 
own  powers  of  activity,  and  then  disseminate  the 
same  activity  amongst  the  various  groups  to  which 
he  belongs.  He  cannot  wrap  himself  up  in  a 
narrow,  sordid  egotism  without  forfeiting  the 
fuller,  more  extended  vitality  which  comes  from  a 
wide  participation  in  the  life  of  the  social  series. 
The  only  rule  which  can  be  laid  down  in  a  general 
way  is  to  prefer  a  higher  duty  to  a  lower  one,  to 
choose  that  which  will  produce  a  greater  rather 
than  a  lesser  quantity  of  life." 


In  order  to  get  the  fullest  value  out  of  life,  we 
must  have  a  reason  for  living — that  is  to  say,  an 
object  or  ideal  towards  which  our  efforts  may  be 
constantly  directed. 


Godin  :  "  But  the  law  of  life  is  not  merely  a 
law  affecting  individual  and  species  :  it  is  also 
the  general,  universal  law  on  which  depends  the 
solidarity  of  both  individual  and  species  with  the 
Universe. 

"  In  order,  then,  not  to  infringe  the  fundamental 
law  of  his  existence,  man  must  watch  over  the 
preservation,  development,  and  equipoise  of  his 
own  life  ;  but,  as  the  criterion  of  his  merit  is  his 
activity   in   helping   to   bring   about   the  greatest 


DUTIES  AND  PRECEPTS  219 

possible  sum  of  life,  it  is  not  enough  that  he  should 
work  only  for  himself ;  it  must  also  be  his  task  to 
foster,  develop,  and  bring  into  equipoise  the  life 
of  his  fellow-men,  as  well  as  the  life  that  lies  about 
him  in  Nature.  That  is  the  object  of  human  life, 
that  is  Progress  : — the  development  of  life  as  a 
whole  upon  this  earth,  so  that  it  may  co-operate 
in  the  maintenance  and  equipoise  of  Life  Universal, 
towards  which  each  human  individuahty  contributes 
its  share."  

Godin  :  **  Then  and  always,  the  crowning  prin- 
ciple will  be  the  preservation,  development,  and 
equilibration  of  the  life  within  you  and  around 
you,  for  your  fellow-men  as  well  as  for  yourself, 
and  all  the  acts  of  your  life  will  be  accounted  just 
so  much  to  your  credit  as  they  have  been  of  value 
to  life  itself."  

Epictetus  :  "  We  write  down  beautiful  maxims, 
but  are  we  thoroughly  imbued  with  them,  and 
do  we  put  them  into  practice  ?  " 


Part  IV 
On  Death 

You  think  of  the  pain  that  you  will  feel,  as  you 
imagine,  at  the  moment  of  death,  and  you  are 
afraid. 

But  you  must  remember  that  death  is  very 
seldom  a  painful  ordeal.  It  is  almost  certain 
that  your  end  will  be  preceded  by  a  feeling  of 
actual  comfort,  or  at  the  very  least  by  a  cessation 
of  pain.  For  the  carbonic  acid  in  the  blood  being 
no  longer  eliminated,  it  will  gradually  accumulate 
and  benumb  all  sense  of  pain,  sending  you  to  sleep 
like  any  other  anaesthetic.  Being  thus  free  from 
suffering,  you  may  be  led  to  think  that  you  are 
on  the  road  to  recovery,  and  you  will  begin  to 
make  plans  for  the  future.  And  then  you  will 
fall  asleep  in  the  land  of  Peace. 

But  even  if  you  are  under  no  such  misappre- 
hension, and  your  mind  is  lucid  to  the  last,  you 
will  contemplate  the  approach  of  death  without 
terror,  anxiety,  or  emotion  ;  you  will  not  dread 
it,  you  will  calmly  await  it,  and  that  without 
any  effort  on  your  part,  but  as  something  quite  in 
the  natural  order  of  things.  It  is  Nature's  ordi- 
nance. And,  indeed,  the  fear  of  death  which  Nature 
has  put  into  us  disappears  as  soon  as  all  hope  of 
life  is  gone.  We  are  only  afraid  of  death  so  long 
as  there  is  a  possibility  of  its  being  avoided,  and 

220 


ON  DEATH  221 

so  long  as  our  efforts  to  do  so  are  of  any  avail ; 
but  when  once  this  possibility  has  vanished,  our 
fears  vanish  as  well. 

This  fear  of  death,  when  the  end  is  still  remote, 
is  a  proof  of  Nature's  foresight.  If  death  had  no 
terrors  for  us,  we  might  be  seeking  it  on  the  slight- 
est provocation,  or  at  any  rate  we  should  make 
no  effort  to  avoid  it ;  whereas  it  is  Nature's  desire 
that  Hfe  should  be  continued.  On  the  other  hand, 
it  is  Nature's  habit  to  inflict  only  the  minimum  of 
pain,  and  that  is  why  our  fear  ceases  when  there 
is  nothing  to  be  gained  by  further  struggle  ;  the 
very  wish  to  live  disappears  at  the  same  moment. 
Death,  then,  is  only  dreaded  during  the  fullness 
of  life  ;  the  nearer  it  approaches,  the  less  terrifying 
it  becomes. 

If  you  have  ever  stood  by  the  death-bed  of  one 
of  your  family,  you  may  perhaps  have  witnessed 
his  final  convulsions  and  heard  the  death-rattle 
in  his  throat ;  your  heart  was  then  full  of  pity 
for  him,  and  also  for  yourself,  when  you  thought 
of  what  your  own  last  moments  would  be  like. 
Yet  why  be  alarmed  ?  The  spasms  of  the  dying 
are  all  purely  reflex  (in  a  physical  sense),  uncon- 
scious, and  free  from  pain,  and  the  breathing  which 
seems  so  laboured  causes  no  suffering  at  all.  All 
pain,  physical  or  mental,  vanishes  at  the  near 
approach  of  death.  Would  you  have  proof? 
Then  question  those  who  have  come  back  to  life 
after  being  on  the  brink  of  dissolution.  They  will 
tell  you  that  they  have  no  recollection  of  any 
suffering,  and  that  what  they  experienced  was 
nothing  more  dreadful  than  the  gradual  enwrapping 
of  their  senses  in  a  tranquil  sleep. 

William   Hunter   said   a   short    time   before   he 
died  :    "  If  I  had  the  strength  to  hold  a  pen,  I 


222  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

should  like  to  use  it  to  express  how  easy  and 
pleasant  it  is  to  die." 

''  But,"  you  say,  "  all  men  do  not  die  of  disease, 
many  are  killed  by  accidents."  A  violent  death 
is  much  less  painful  than  you  imagine ;  one  might 
even  say  that  as  a  general  rule  it  is  not  painful  at 
all.  You  have  already  heard  what  Livingstone 
has  to  say  on  the  subject.  Thrown  to  the  ground, 
with  his  shoulder  mangled  by  a  lion,  and  the  animal 
itself  crouching  over  him,  ready  to  crush  his  head 
between  its  jaws,  Livingstone  suffered  no  sensation 
either  of  pain  or  fear,  although  he  was  perfectly 
conscious  of  all  that  was  taking  place.  Fear  for 
him  was  non-existent,  and  he  was  able  to  look  upon 
the  beast  without  horror. 

So,  too,  with  regard  to  the  many  big-game  hunters 
we  have  mentioned. 

The  victims  of  carriage,  motor,  and  bicycle 
accidents  are  likewise  unanimous  in  declaring 
that  neither  alarm  nor  pain  is  felt  at  the  time,  but 
at  the  most  a  vague  sort  of  surprise.  Thus  we 
can  assume  that  if  death  were  to  take  place  im- 
mediately after  the  accident,  there  would  be  no 
suifering  at  all. 

We  will  content  ourselves  with  a  single  case  in 
point,  that  of  Sir  Francis  Younghusband,  who 
won  distinction  in  Thibet. 

While  he  was  on  leave  he  paid  a  visit  to  Switzer- 
land. There,  he  tells  us  (we  abridge  his  narra- 
tive ;  for  a  full  account,  see  his  book  Within)  : 
"  We  were  returning  from  an  aviation  meeting 
along  with  a  number  of  other  pedestrians  and 
several  motor-cars,  and  were  out  in  the  country 
about  three  miles  from  a  town.  There  was  no 
pavement,  so  we  had  to  walk  in  the  roadway. 
Suddenly  my  companion   shouted  :    *  Look  out ! ' 


ON  DEATH  223 

.  .  .  There  was  no  time  to  think  what  to  do.  I 
could  only  give  a  desperate  spring  in  the  air,  I 
suppose  in  some  vague  effort  to  escape  being 
crushed  under  the  wheels.  Then  came  the  crash. 
I  seemed  to  be  whirling  in  a  wild  struggle  with  the 
machine.  With  arms  and  legs  I  fought  instinctively 
to  free  myself.  .  .  . 

"  Was  it  to  be  death  ?  It  seemed  it  must  be. 
The  machine  was  too  relentless,  too  impossible 
to  struggle  against.  And  if  death  had  resulted,  it 
would  have  been  absolutely  painless,  for  no  pain 
had  yet  come.  There  would  have  been  simply 
extinction,  without  suffering  and  without  thought. 
...  In  an  instant  the  full  current  of  life  with  all 
its  unfulfilled  purposes  and  ties  of  love  and  affection 
would  have  been  brought  to  a  stop.  But  I  myself 
would  have  felt  as  little  as  an  electric  lamp  when 
the  current  is  switched  off.  The  light  would  have 
gone  out,  but  there  would  have  been  no  pain. 

**  But  it  was  not  to  be  death.  I  was  flung  con- 
temptuously to  the  far  edge  of  the  road,  and  there 
I  sat  dazed  but  conscious,  still  without  pain,  but 
aware  that  a  serious  accident  had  happened,  and 
fearful  of  the  shock  it  would  give  those  most  dear 
to  me.i 

"  In  a  stunned  way  I  gazed  at  the  collecting  crowd, 
at  the  motor-car,  at  the  scared  faces  of  the  ladies 
inside,  at  the  gendarmes  taking  notes.  But  I  was 
unaware  where  or  how  I  was  hurt,  or  whether  I  was 
hurt  at  all.  Then  I  heard  my  companion  murmur 
to  himself,  *  Broken  leg,'  and  I  saw  that  my  left 
leg  was  curled  under  me.  I  suffered  nothing,  and 
my   feeling   at   the   moment   was   one  of  comfort 

»  This  thought  of  the  anxiety  that  will  be  felt  by  those  we 
love  nearly  always  rises  to  the  mind  at  the  moment  when  an 
accident  occurs. 


224  AN  ETHICAL  SYSTEM 

at  being  able  to  sit  cross-legged  so  easily,  for  my 
leg  felt  elastic  and  soft  as  putty.  I  saw,  though, 
that  it  was  the  case  that  my  leg  was  broken,  and 
I  vaguely  wondered  what  other  injury  I  might 
have  suffered.  .  .  . 

"  Unfortunately  no  temporary  splint  was  made, 
and  during  the  drive  back — the  last  mile  over 
Continental  cobble-stones — the  jars  were  terrible, 
for  now  the  pain  was  beginning,  and  I  winced  at 
each  fresh  bump  the  motor  made. 

"  Both  bones  of  my  leg  had  been  broken  and  were 
sticking  through  the  flesh.  .  .  .  Tendons,  muscles, 
and  nerves  were  also  torn,  and  I  had  a  deep  flesh 
wound  on  the  opposite  knee." 

Edward  Whymper,  the  Alpinist,  writes  of  a  fall 
he  experienced  on  the  Matterhorn,  as  follows  : — 

"  The  baton  was  dashed  from  my  hands,  and 
I  whirled  downwards  in  a  series  of  bounds,  each 
longer  than  the  last ;  now  over  ice,  now  into  rocks, 
striking  my  head  four  or  five  times,  each  time  with 
increased  force.  The  last  bound  sent  me  spinning 
through  the  air,  in  a  leap  of  fifty  or  sixty  feet,  from 
one  side  of  the  gully  to  the  other,  and  I  struck  the 
rocks,  luckily  with  the  whole  of  my  left  side.  .  .  . 
As  it  was,  I  fell  nearly  two  hundred  feet  in  seven 
or  eight  bounds. 

"As  it  seldom  happens  that  one  survives  such 
a  fall,  it  may  be  interesting  to  record  what  my 
sensations  were  during  its  occurrence.  I  was 
perfectly  conscious  of  what  was  happening,  and 
felt  each  blow ;  but,  like  a  patient  under  chloroform, 
experienced  no  pain.  Each  blow  was,  naturally, 
more  severe  than  that  which  preceded  it,  and  I 
distinctly  remember  thinking  :  '  Well,  if  the  next 
is  harder  still,  that  will  be  the  end.'  Like  persons 
who  have  been  rescued  from  drowning,  I  remember 


ON  DEATH  225 

that  the  recollection  of  a  multitude  of  things  rushed 
through  my  head,  many  of  them  trivialities  or 
absurdities,  which  had  been  forgotten  long  before  ; 
and,  more  remarkable,  this  bounding  through  space 
did  not  feel  disagreeable.  But  I  think  that,  in  no 
very  great  distance  more,  consciousness  as  well  as 
sensation  would  have  been  lost,  and  upon  that  I 
base  my  belief,  improbable  as  it  seems,  that  death 
by  a  fall  from  a  great  height  is  as  painless  an  end 
as  can  be  experienced."  {Scrambles  amongst  the 
Alps.) 

Admiral  Beaufort,  who  in  his  youth  fell  into  the 
water,  says  :  "As  soon  as  I  ceased  to  struggle,  the 
first  tumult  in  my  brain  was  succeeded  by  a  feeling 
of  calm  and  almost  perfect  tranquillity  :  it  was 
apathy,  not  resignation,  because  drowning  did  not 
seem  to  me  a  bad  thing.  I  no  longer  thought  of 
being  saved,  and  I  did  not  suffer  in  any  way.  On 
the  contrary,  my  sensations  were  rather  agreeable 
than  otherwise,  being  something  like  the  comfortable 
feeling  of  drowsiness  which  a  tired  man  experiences 
before  dropping  off  to  sleep." 

Dr  R.  W.  MacKenna  in  The  Adventure  of  Death 
tells  us  : — 

"  A  young  man  who  fell  from  the  roof  of  a  lofty 
building  and  escaped,  miraculously,  with  a  handful 
of  bruises,  assured  me  that  in  his  long  fall  to 
earth,  which  seemed  to  cover  an  eternity,  he  did 
not  feel  the  slightest  fear  ;  and  I  have  been  told 
by  three  medical  men,  each  of  whom  narrowly 
escaped  drowning  under  entirely  different  circum- 
stances, that  when  their  fate  seemed  certain  all 
fear  was  taken  from  them.  One  of  them  tells  me 
that  at  the  moment  of  his  greatest  danger  he  felt 
quite  unconcerned,  and  did  not  experience  the 
slightest  anxiety  until  he  was  about  to  be  rescued, 

15 


226  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

when  he  was  unexpectedly  assailed  by  a  timorous 
wonder  as  to  whether  the  rescue-boat  would  reach 
him  in  time.  So  long  as  he  had  no  hope  of  safety, 
he  had  no  fear.  Another  assures  me  that  the  alarm 
which  attended  his  discovery,  that  he  was  being 
swept  away  powerless  before  the  tide,  rapidly 
gave  way,  as  his  strength  became  exhausted,  to  a 
comfortable  condition  of  indifference,  and  his  last 
thought  before  he  lost  consciousness  was  one  of 
quiet  amusement.  He  saw  a  fussy  but  futile 
gentleman  dash  frantically  from  the  beach  into 
the  sea,  with  heroic  but  indeterminate  intentions 
of  bringing  succour,  and,  after  thoroughly  wetting 
himself,  retire  hastily  to  the  beach  again.  This 
was  the  last  thing  he  remembers  seeing  before 
unconsciousness  supervened,  and  the  sight  pro- 
voked him  to  the  thought,  *  What  a  funny  thing 
to  do  !  ' 

'*  Sir  J.  F.  Goodhart,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
London's  consulting  physicians,  when  a  resident 
doctor  in  Guy's  Hospital,  arranged  with  the  sister 
in  charge  of  his  wards  that  he  should  be  called  to 
every  patient  who  seemed  to  be  dying.  *  I  wanted,' 
he  says,  *  apart  from  my  duties,  to  obtain  also 
some  actual  knowledge  of  facts  that  foretell  im- 
mediate dissolution.'  And  out  of  those  trying 
experiences  he  gathered  these  grains  of  comfort : 
*  I  am  never  tired  of  saying,  because  I  am  sure 
it  is  as  true  as  it  is  comforting,  although  in  opposi- 
tion to  the  general  belief,  that  death  has  no  terror 
for  the  sick  man  ' ;  and  also  this  :  '  There  is  nothing 
terrible  to  the  dying  in  death  itself.  The  veil 
between  two  worlds  is  but  a  cloud,  and  one  passes 
through  it  imperceptibly.' 

*'  Those  who  have  seen  much  of  death  are  agreed 
that  it  is  often  a  difficult  matter  to  determine  the 


ON  DEATH  227 

precise  moment  at  which  the  final  change  occurs, 
so  imperceptibly  and  quietly  does  life  merge  into 
death.  There  is  no  physician  who  has  not  stood, 
many  a  time,  in  a  hushed  room,  with  a  finger  on  a 
flickering  pulse,  and  watched  the  end  supervene  so 
gently,  that  not  till  he  had  placed  his  stethoscope 
over  the  heart  could  he  be  sure  that  *  life's  fitful 
fever  '  was  over.  This  is  how  the  great  change 
usually  supervenes  in  old  people — a  gradual  som- 
nolence, passing  by  gradations  into  a  deeper  and 
deeper  slumber  till,  as  the  ancient  Greek  philo- 
sopher Diogenes  of  Sinope  said,  *  One  brother 
begins  to  embrace  the  other,'  and  sleep  is  swallowed 
up  in  death.     In  most  cases  they 

'  Drift  on  through  slumber  to  a  dream 
And  through  a  dream  to  death.' 

The  death  of  a  child  is  often  as  imperceptible,  and 
at  any  age  the  end  may  occur  so  quietly  as  to  be 
almost  unobserved." 

It  appears,  then,  as  many  people  know  by 
experience,  that  there  is  some  beneficent  machinery 
which,  in  the  event  of  an  accident,  fulfils  the  same 
function  as  carbonic  acid  in  the  case  of  death  from 
disease. 

In  short,  there  may  be  suffering  during  an  illness, 
but  there  is  none  at  the  moment  of  death. 

Death  itself  is  absolutely  devoid  of  pain,  resem- 
bling in  this  respect  a  deep  and  tranquil  slumber. 


L.  Bourdeau  :  "  The  proper  spirit  in  which  to 
meet  death  is  one  of  resignation,  or,  better  still, 
of  cheerful  acquiescence  and  fortitude.  In  order  to 
rob  death  of  its  sting,  it  is  not  enough  to  submit  to 
it  without  recalcitrance  ;  it  must  be  accepted  without 
sadness,  welcomed,  and  even  greeted  with  a  smile. 


228  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

The  superior  quality  of  reason  is  shown  in  recog- 
nising not  only  the  necessity  but  also  the  utility 
of  death,  and  in  approving  the  law  which  ordains 
that  we  shall  come  to  an  end.  ...  By  our  volun- 
tary acceptance  of  it  as  a  stern  obligation,  the 
payment  of  a  debt  of  honour,  and  the  fulfilment 
of  a  final  duty,  the  act  of  dying  becomes  a  moral 
act,  which  has  its  sanction  as  such,  and  finds  its 
reward  in  the  peace  and  tranquillity  of  a  virtuous 
end.  Let  us  clear  our  mind  of  visionary  terrors, 
trust  to  the  principle  of  order  underlying  the 
course  of  natural  events,  and,  when  our  last  hour 
has  struck,  sink  placidly  into  the  bosom  of  the 
infinite.  .  .  .  Let  us  enjoy  life  as  a  temporary 
participation  in  the  universal  reality,  but  let  us 
assent  to  death  as  to  the  law  of  renovation  em- 
bracing all  living  things,  by  which  the  finite  is 
re-absorbed  into  the  infinite.  Let  us  know  how  to 
live,  and  show  ourselves  not  unwilling  to  die." 


Marcus  Aurelius  :  "Do  not  despise  death,  but 
accept  it  with  resignation  as  one  of  the  things  which 
Nature  desires.  Do  we  not  undergo  the  transition 
from  childhood  to  adolescence,  from  adolescence 
to  manhood  ?  Do  we  not  increase  in  years  and 
stature,  cut  our  teeth,  grow  beards,  and  see  the 
whitening  of  our  hair  ?  .  .  .  The  dissolution 
which  comes  with  death  is  nowise  different  in 
kind  from  these  natural  changes  that  accompany 
each  stage  in  the  journey  of  life.  Therefore  it 
behoves  the  wise  man  to  show  for  death  neither 
contempt  nor  repugnance  nor  disdain,  but  to  await 
its  coming  as  one  of  the  functions  of  Nature." 


Marcus  Aurelius  :    "  What  is  death  ?     If  it  be 
contemplated  by  itself  and  in  the  abstract,  stripped 


ON  DEATH  229 

of  all  the  accessories  with  which  our  imagination 
invests  it,  we  shall  see  in  death  nothing  but  an 
operation  of  Nature  ;  and  to  dread  an  operation 
of  Nature  is  pure  childishness.  Further  than  that : 
it  is  not  only  an  operation  of  Nature,  but  an  opera- 
tion which  is  advantageous  to  Nature." 


Epictetus  :  *'  Death  must  come  to  us  sooner  or 
later.  In  what  occupation  will  it  find  us  engaged  ? 
A  husbandman  will  be  occupied  with  his  labours  on 
the  land,  a  gardener  will  be  busy  with  his  garden, 
a  merchant  will  be  engaged  in  trading.  Tell  me, 
what  will  you  be  doing  in  your  last  moments  ?  As 
for  me,  it  is  my  fervent  wish  that  I  may  be  found 
engaged  in  the  task  of  disciplining  my  will,  so  that 
I  may  execute  this  final  act  as  a  free  man  should, 
without  agitation,  impediment,  or  constraint." 


Marcus    Aurelius :     "  It    is    for    our   good    that 
Nature  is  forced  to  act  as  she  does." 


Marcus  Aurelius  :  **  Whatever  is  agreeable  to 
thee,  O  Universe,  is  also  agreeable  to  me.  Nothing 
can  be  either  belated  or  premature  if  it  be  seasonable 
for  thee.  Everything  that  time  brings  with  it  is 
to  me  as  welcome  as  the  taste  of  refreshing  fruit. 
From  thee  all  things  proceed,  O  Nature  ;  in  thee 
all  things  are  embodied;  to  thee  all  things  return." 


Remember  that  you  only  exist  through  the  Whole, 
in  the  Whole,  and  for  the  Whole.  One  of  the 
things  which  prove  that  you  are  living  not  for  your- 
self, but  solely  in  order  that  the  Whole  may  live, 
is  the  fact  that  your  existence  as  an  individual 
being  or  personality  has  but  an  infinitely  short 
duration  compared  with  the  infinite  time  that  has 


230  AN  ETHICAL   SYSTEM 

preceded  and  the  infinite  time  that  will  follow  this 
brief  moment.  Your  life,  even  if  it  lasts  for  a 
whole  century,  is  in  relation  to  eternity  but  a 
lightning  flash  between  two  infinities.  It  is  just 
as  absurd  to  believe  that  you  exist  for  yourself 
alone  (or  that  everything  has  been  created  for  your 
benefit)  as  it  would  be  for  the  lightning  to  imagine 
that  it  also  exists  for  itself,  and  that  earth  and 
clouds  have  been  created  for  no  other  purpose  than 
to  enable  it  to  live  for  a  fraction  of  a  second,  sand- 
wiched between  two  infinities. 

Both  man  and  lightning  flash  participate  in  the 
life  of  the  Whole,  but  only  in  order  to  contribute 
their  share  to  the  activity  of  the  Cosmos,  and  to 
help  it  to  live  its  grand  life.  One  advantage, 
however,  that  man  has  over  the  lightning  is  that 
the  process  of  co-operation,  in  his  case,  may  be 
carried  out  with  love  and  intelligence. 


The  Universe  is  an  immense  reservoir  of  energy, 
of  which  man  forms  an  infinitesimal  part.  This 
infinitesimal  part,  after  having  had  a  personal 
existence  for  a  very  short  space  of  time,  reverts  to 
the  Whole.  Why,  then,  should  you  fear  death, 
since  death  is  only  a  reversion  to  the  Whole  out 
of  which  you  came  ? 


Marcus  AureHus  :  **  At  present  you  exist  as  part  of 
the  Whole.  By  and  by  you  will  be  absorbed  into 
the  being  which  produced  you,  or  rather  you  will 
undergo  a  change  and  be  remoulded  by  its  generat- 
ing power."  

Marcus  Aurelius  :  "  We  must  depart  from  hfe 
with  resignation,   even  as  if  a  ripe   olive  falling 


ON  DEATH  231 

should    praise    the    earth    its    foster-mother,    and 
give  thanks  to  the  tree  that  produced  it." 

Marcus  Aurehus  :  "  Death  is  hanging  over  your 
head  :  while  you  are  still  alive,  while  you  still  have 
the  power,  try  to  become  a  good  man." 


Remember  that  death  is  lying  in  wait  for  us  all — 
for  you  and  for  those  around  you.  Take  advantage, 
then,  of  the  present  opportunity  for  showing  your 
affection  to  all  :  soon  it  will  be  too  late. 


Love  life  passionately,  but  do  not  fear  death  ; 
do  not  fear  it  for  yourself.  Your  death  will  cause 
pain  only  to  whose  whom  you  leave  behind  :  that 
is  the  sole  thought  which  ought  to  sadden  you  in 
that  supreme  moment. 


PRINTED  IN   GREAT  BRITAIN   BY   NEItL  AND   CO.,   LTD.,  EDINBURGH. 


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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


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